<div><p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em> </em></p><div><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">上一篇【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】里我</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">简单介绍了现代西方政治哲学中影响最大的理论(霍布斯和洛克)。这一篇我们来看中国古代政治哲学(或者说是政治理论)的要点。中国古代的政治理论主体是儒教。芝加哥大学历史系荣修教授</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;"> William McNeill</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">曾写</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">过一本世界史的经典:《西方的崛起》。这里引用这本书里关于儒教政治理论的介绍,因为它简明扼要</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">。</span></em></div> <p style="margin: 14pt 0in 4pt;"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"MS Gothic";MS Gothic";color:#666666;"><strong>中国古代政治哲学</strong></span><strong> </strong><strong></strong></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">中国古代政治哲学由孔子</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">阐述,被称为儒教或儒学【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】:</span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">在中国占主</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">导地位(直到</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1911</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">年</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">满清王朝被推翻时)政治理论大概起源于周朝。按照这个理论,天把权力委托给政治上掌权的人。但像它的神秘地授予一样这权力也可能会同样神秘地被收回。这个信念有下面两个重要推论。首先,因为天包含了所有土地,上天指定的皇帝当然也是普世皇朝。这样的概念即所有人,华人和蛮人,都应尊敬同一个</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">天子</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">”</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">成</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">为所有后来中国政治理论的基本信条。这意味着中国如果分裂在道义和政治上属于不正常。这种思维框架极大地促使了后来历届皇朝巩固权力并使中国经</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">常</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">统一,这不是仅凭赤裸的军事力量所能达到的。另一方面,相信中国皇帝的唯一优越地位虽然对中国周边蛮人有效,但是这使以后与更文明更强大的外国统治者打交道时复杂。</span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">这个政治理论的第二个推论是皇帝作为天的指定人,要保持他的位置必须遵从天意。历代中国思想家花费大力气解释什么是天意,因这对统治者来说至关重要。通常来说,他们的结论是华丽地实行献祭和其他仪式会取悦于天。但好的道德行为和好的政府也取悦于天。皇帝在这两方面有一方面不对可能会对国家带来灾难:水灾,饥荒,或瘟疫。在极端的情形,天甚至可能收回它的授权,彻底推</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">翻</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">这个皇朝。</span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">这样的政府理论,虽可以给篡权和叛乱提供理由,但也限制征服者赤裸的军事力量。甚至公元前</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">771</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">年以后,中央政</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">权实际已消失,这个理论作为理想仍持久不衰。这个理论后来被孔子加强以后,巩固同时限制中国历史上各代皇帝的权力。</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">” </span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">注意</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">McNeill</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">用了神秘地授予,神秘地被收回。</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">这里主要是指没有一种具体方法或程序来判断天意属于哪一人或哪一派。中国传统政治理论的模糊性是它有长久生命力的因素之一,也是中国胜者王败者寇深入人心的原因之一,也就是说胜者理所当然被解释为是天所指定的。上面解释了为什么儒教使</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">中国政治相当</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">稳定。中国的政治稳定的另一个原因是中国很早建立了一套有效的官僚制度;中国的官僚制度及其功用在【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">4</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">许多地方有讨论。上面</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">McNeill</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">还指出儒教思想可能使中国在外交方面遇到的难处,不过这是近代才遇到的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">。</span></p> <p style="margin: 14pt 0in 4pt;"><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"MS Gothic";MS Gothic";color:#666666;"><strong>佛教的影响</strong></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><strong> </strong></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">佛教在中国扎根与中国曾</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">经有一段时期政权遇到困难(即我们常说的动乱)有关,佛教对中国政治提供了一种补充【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">5</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】:</span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">在中国,接受佛教和与它伴同的印度文化印</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">记是复杂的。这个过程有四世纪之久,包含了印度的理念和中国古代的传统,特别是道教,微妙互惠的交流。使中国人严肃考虑佛教的基</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">本原因是因</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">汉朝制度崩溃的痛苦,而与汉朝制度紧密相连的儒教当时明显无用。当围绕皇位的派系斗争让步与困苦农民的起义(起于公元后</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">184</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">年</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">) </span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">然后是政治分裂。</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">篡夺者,野蛮人侵入者,和地方军阀争夺皇位继承权。这时儒教的教训看来越来与政治现实无关了。不安的心灵开始寻求对宇宙的不同解释。</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">” </span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">我</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">们大家知道佛教有两个特征:远离世俗和轮回。信佛教的民众或者远离政治或是采取被动的听天由命的态度。另一方面,轮回说法则使人们比较容易接受灾难和困境,把希望寄予将来。佛教这些补充并不挑战儒教的政治理论的垄断地位,而使平民听天由命逆</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">来</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">顺受,更有助于政权稳定</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">。</span></p> <p style="margin: 14pt 0in 4pt;"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"MS Gothic";MS Gothic";color:#666666;">中国走向</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:MingLiU;color:#666666;">现代</span> </strong><strong></strong></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">从太平天国起,中国开始向</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">现代转变。但</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">McNeill </span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">指出</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">现代中国仍然保留许多旧机制【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">6</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】:</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">中国的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">发展从太平天国暴动开始(</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1850</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">)到共</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">产党的掌权(</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1949</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">)大部分相似于</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">过去的朝代更新。许多遥远的附属国脱离满清帝国,而一系列的内部叛乱和持续的外国侵略震撼中国本土。这一切与以前极其相近。而中共政权自</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1949</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">年以来的外交政策,重新申明中国在外延区域例如西藏,朝</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">鲜,越南的影响,也效仿熟悉的以前帝国方式。</span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">更近一步,共</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">产主义的党和政府的级别结构接近于复制儒教的学者和官员的级别结构。这种结构的相似甚至到它们在权力实行上的相互解释穿插。实际上,出现在欧洲</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1917</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">年来在</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">马克思主义和纳粹主义旗帜下的专制国家社会主义表现出与传统中国官僚的实行,原理,和偏见有显著亲近性。对好的儒家,忠诚的共产党人,和献身的纳粹党人来说,他们有下面的共同性:实行把广泛任意的权力交给受过教育的经过特出挑选的精英,用国家权力为多数人的福利和为此甚至不惜用严厉的镇压,和对以下各种邪恶的偏见,奸商,外国人,宗教迷信。</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">” </span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">McNeill</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">深刻地指出共</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">产主义,纳粹主义,与儒教统治有相似的政治结构。近代中国在西方文明的冲击下寻找强国的途径。因为儒教与共产党的政体有相似的政治结构,使得中国比较容易采取共产主义制度。中国之所以走共产主义这段弯路存在不少因素,例如第三国际的颠覆,日本侵略,国民党政府腐败等等。但是中国社会的官僚基础与共产党统治的结构相似使得共党统治比较容易被采用,因为这样不需要作大的改动就可以</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">现代化</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">”</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">了。</span></p> <p style="margin: 14pt 0in 4pt;"><strong><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"MS Gothic";MS Gothic";color:#666666;">中国古代政治哲学与西方政治哲学的比</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:MingLiU;color:#666666;">较</span> </strong></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><strong> </strong></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">因</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">为篇幅的原因,【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】没有介</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">绍古希腊政治哲学;史密斯的政治哲学书【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">7</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】花了很多篇幅</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">讨论古</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">希腊政治哲学。如果比</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">较中国古代政治哲学和古希腊政治哲学,我们会发现儒教的政治理论比古希腊政治哲学简单很多。不过我们这里主要关心的是儒教政治哲学与现代西方政治哲学的比较。这里提到古希腊哲学目的是不排除将来中国政治哲学在希腊政治哲学的基础上发展的可能性</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">。</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">现在比较儒教政治理论与霍布斯的国家理论和洛克的自由民主理论。首先儒教的政治理论接近于欧洲中世纪的君权神授论,但是比较君权神授论更为粗糙模糊。譬如什么是儒教中的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">天</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">”</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">?当然我</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">们可以将儒教中的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">”</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">天</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">理解</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">为宗教里的神。但是儒教政治理论中的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">”</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">天</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">是个模糊的概念,不像基督教的神(上帝)有圣</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">经可依。其次,儒教政治理论没有一套可以遵行的程序。譬如怎样知道统治者违反了天意,然后用什么程序可以使他下台。第三,霍布斯提出契约论后,洛克和卢梭的理论也建立在契约论上只是在前提和契约内容上有所不同。契约论的重要是统治者也要履行责任。而且契约论的隐含(有的书直接阐明)意思是权力原来属于公民,公民在有了契约以后才放弃自己的权力,所以统治者的权力最终来自人民。儒教的政治理论中统治者的权力来自</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">天</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">”</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">,与人民没有直接关系,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">这是最大的问题。除非进行全面改进,儒教政治哲学现在难以与西方主流政治哲学竞争</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">。</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">另外中国古代政治理</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">论没有现代化的因素。福山提出了现代国家需要有三个要素:国家建设、法治、负责制【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">4</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】。国家建</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">设指政治、经济、军事的建设。中国这方面在世界上领先,二千年前就建设起一个强大的国家。中国在法治上落后。我曾经写过一篇短文介绍法治的意义并给出文献;读者可以参考【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">8</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】。可能有不少</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">华人不明白最后一项</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">accountable</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">(翻</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">译成问责或负责制)。福山实际上是用一个更广泛的词涵盖民主。【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">4</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】中最后有些地方他直接用民主来代替</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">accountable</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">这个词。中国历来没有民主,华人很容易把问责或是负责任理</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">解成下</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">级对上级负责。没有契约,就没有</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">accountability</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">(</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">负责任)。</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">以福山的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">观点来看,中国的政治还没有现代化</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">。</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">有些人可能会</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">问中国政体一定应该是民主吗?答案是一定的,只不过是早晚的事。二千多年来的古今中外先哲探索的结论是民主是比较好的政治制度。如果一个政治哲学家想提出一种比自由民主制更好的制度,他必须考虑所有以前的政治理论,提出一个新的经过严密考虑的政治理论,并证明它胜出以前的政治体系。这绝不是一件容易的工作。史密斯指出世界上有史以来极少有真正的哲学家,一般哲学教授只是解释和教授现有的哲学【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">7</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">】。即使是真正的哲学家,也不一定能</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">够提出有价值的政治哲学思想。例如马克思提出了共产主义,但是试图实行他的理论的国家都蒙受政治和经济巨大灾难。我们还可以从另外一个角度考虑。亚里斯多德的政体划分中除了民主以外还有专制和寡头。古今中外几千年的历史证明专制和寡头政权偶尔会产生一个两个好政府,但是大多数专制或寡头政府都存在严重问题。好一些的专制或寡头政府低效、浪费、腐败;差的连平民的生命财产都没有基本保障。无论从理论还是实践来说,只有民主才有前途。所以【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">7</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">】有</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">这样一段:</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">“</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">政治学的</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">现代分支已经成为民主制的研究:什么是民主?民主有哪些种类?民主是怎样变成的?怎样维持和保存民主?</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">”</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">即使确立了民主</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">这个大前提,我们仍然有许多工作要做。譬如如何在</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">中国</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU;">实行民主?美国基本上采取了洛克的理论。考虑中国的历史文化和国情,是不是应该在洛克的理论上加以修正?中国应该如何实行民主转型?我将在下一篇中初步探讨这些问题</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">。</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">注</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">释</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">:</span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">1</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">韩家亮:政治哲学与中国的政治前景(上)</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;"> http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=42504</span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">2</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">William McNeill, "The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community", University Of Chicago Press, 1992</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’;">,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">226-227</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">页</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">. </span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">3</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">Fernand Braudel, "A History of Civilizations," Penguin, April 1, 1995. </span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">4</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">Francis Fukuyama, "The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution,"Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011. </span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">5</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">William McNeill</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">"The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community"</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">p.382. </span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">6</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">William McNeill</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">"The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community"</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">,</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">p.781. </span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">7</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">Steven B. Smith, "Political Philosophy," Yale University Press, 2012. </span></em></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><em><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">【</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; background: #efefef;">8</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: \’MS Gothic\’; background: #efefef;">】</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; font-family: MingLiU; background: #efefef;">韩家亮:法治,法制,三权分立</span> <a href="http://my.cnd.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=28078"><span style="font-size:11.5pt;font-family:"Arial",sans-serif;Times New Roman";color:#1155CC;background:#EFEFEF;">http://my.cnd.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=28078</span></a></em></p> <p><em> </em></p></div>