圖登嘉措(十三世達賴喇嘛):西藏現代化的展開與頓挫

<p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:楷体;">吾自擔負政教統治之責,未曾稍懈,亦無暇享樂,焦慮於國家政教諸事,</span><span style="font-family:楷体">夜以繼日</span><span style="font-family: 楷体;">,以期做出最佳決定,令二者均得昌盛。吾常思及農夫之利益,思索良策以減其哀傷勞苦,以及如何叩開果決、公平及正義之門。</span></p> <p align="right"><span style="font-family:楷体;">十三世達賴喇嘛圖登嘉措</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一八七六年出生的十三世達賴喇嘛圖登嘉措,其成長和執政時期,正好是近代化風潮猛烈衝擊東方的時代:曾經輝煌一時的東方文明,面對</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">已經</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">近代化的西方的挑戰時,紛紛敗下陣來。印度淪為英國的殖民地,強悍的土耳其帝國分崩離析,清帝國在兩次鴉片戰爭中慘敗而備嘗恥辱。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">誰也不曾料到,</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">從歐洲散播出去而只佔全人類極小部分的白人,正在控制地球上的大部</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">分陸地和海洋,使得以農業爲主的亞洲諸社會不得不接受商業經濟和國際貿易。有駐軍和炮艇爲後盾的歐洲人,可以想干預就干預亞洲任一國家的事務。隨着歐洲列強如秋風掃落葉般征服一塊塊土地,造成當地社會、經濟、文化的失序脫軌,亞洲的許多統治者和知識分子憂心忡忡於自己社會的將來。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[1]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措也是面臨&#8220;三千年未有之變局&#8221;的亞洲國家的統治者之一。處於亞洲內陸高原地帶的西藏,單靠地理的阻隔,如今無法讓自己像過去數百年那樣享受&#8220;光榮的孤立&#8221;。世界的變遷和中國的變遷,迫使西藏重新界定自我和規划未來。對於圖登嘉措來說,從他的童年時代便經受了來自內部和外部的對他</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">統治權威的威脅,這種個人經歷和社會背景對他看待和處理西藏政教事務產生了深遠的影響。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[2]</span></span></a></p> <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">進入二十世紀後,圖登嘉措兩度被迫離開西藏。第一次是一九零三年英軍入侵西藏,作為名義上的宗主國,清朝並未派出軍隊幫助西藏抵禦英軍,駐藏大臣則勸他留在拉薩與英國人周旋。圖登嘉措毅然選擇離開,長途跋涉抵達同樣信仰藏傳佛教的蒙古,希望能向俄國求援,但當時正處於內憂外患中的俄國無意亦無力捲入西藏事務。而蒙古大活佛哲布尊丹巴對地位比他更高的達賴喇嘛心存猜忌,要求他盡早離開蒙古。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九零八年,圖登嘉措赴北京,見到了行將就木的慈禧太后</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">和光緒皇帝</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">,並與西方列強</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">駐華</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">外交官們會面</span>&#8212;&#8212;<span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">儘管在清廷官員的監視之下,他</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">仍然</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">竭力爭取國際社會承認西藏。他親眼目睹了清廷的衰落和腐敗,在覲見慈禧太后時不得不跪下一條右腿,讓他感到備受羞辱&#8212;&#8212;當年,五世達賴喇嘛跟清朝皇帝見面時,是平起平坐的。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.75pt"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九零九年,圖登嘉措剛剛回到拉薩,清廷便派</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">新軍</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">兩千</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">名</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">官兵向拉薩進發。英國軍隊撤走之後,清朝意識到西藏的重要性,擔心有可能像失去朝鮮那樣失去西藏,決定向西藏派駐軍隊,介入西藏內政。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.75pt"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">此前,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">川督锡良上奏《平康三策》:第一</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">将&#8220;地多宝藏,药材尤富&#8221;的&#8220;倮夷&#8221;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">、</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">&#8220;野番&#8221;地区&#8220;收入版图&#8221;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">第二</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">改康地为行省,改土归流设置郡县,&#8220;扩充疆宇以保西陲&#8221;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">第三,&#8220;川藏万里&#8221;</span>,<span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">&#8220;宝藏尤富&#8221;,待势达拉萨,藏卫尽如掌握后,就在四川拉萨各设巡抚,仿东三省之例,设西三省总督</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">。繼任川督的趙爾豐即在康區實行&#8220;新政&#8221;,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">康地纵横三四千里,所有土地有史以来首次被&#8220;收归国有&#8221;,所有藏人僧俗,有史以来首次须向&#8220;中国&#8221;申领耕种土地的执照,有史以来首次给&#8220;中国&#8221;纳粮、缴纳盐茶畜牧等各种税捐。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">不過,急於攻进拉萨的趙爾豐,却被驻藏大臣联豫阻止于察木多(昌都),并指责赵尔丰的军队越界攻进了联豫的地盘。後來,清廷改派新军入侵拉萨,从赵控制的&#8220;川边&#8221;过境得不到给养,沿途抢掠藏人。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[3]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.75pt"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措致函北京,不希望中國軍隊進駐拉薩。北京充耳不聞。當清軍即將進入拉薩時,圖登嘉措再度走上流亡路。隨即,清廷發佈一道尖酸刻薄的詔令,剝奪圖登嘉措的世俗權力和作為轉世活佛的身份和地位。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措一行</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">風餐露宿,總算</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">抵達印度大吉岭,在此安居</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">下來。他</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">與印度政</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">府</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">駐錫金專員查爾斯&#183;貝爾爵士建立起親密的友誼。在流亡的三年中,他開闊了視野,孕育出</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">改革</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">西藏政教事務的新構想。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一一年十月,武昌革命爆發,清朝的統治</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">被推翻</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">。西藏人與失去效忠對象的清朝軍隊在拉薩展開激烈巷戰。這支主要由流氓地痞組成的軍隊禍害拉薩已有兩年之久。一九一二年四月,大約兩千名清朝軍人和官員繳械投降,並獲准離開西藏。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一三年一月,圖登嘉措回到了自十八世紀以來第一次沒有中國駐軍和官員的拉薩。他開始行使自第五世達賴喇嘛以後歷代達賴喇嘛不曾有過的政治權力。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[4]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">此後整整二十年的勵精圖治,他留下非凡的成就,也留下令人痛惜的遺憾。不過,十四世達賴喇嘛丹增嘉措在其自傳中,給予十三世達賴喇嘛圖登嘉措高度評價:「我家的生活十分簡樸,卻也幸福與滿足。這滿足多歸功於十三世達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">圖</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">登嘉措。他是多年的西藏政教的領袖。在</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">他統治期間,他闡明和界定了西藏作為一個獨立國家的地位;他也在改善人民生活上取得了巨大的成就。&#8230;&#8230;在他的畢生努力下,西藏人民開始享有一個長時期的安寧和繁榮的年代。」</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5"><span style="color:black;"><span><span style="font-size: 10.5pt; font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;, serif;">[5]</span></span></span></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:楷体;">西藏與中國的關係如同施主與僧侶的供施關係</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一二年底,中華民國新任總統袁世凱致函圖登嘉措,&#8220;在通告和闡釋中華民國成立的同時,要求西藏予以承認&#8221;。中華民國立足未穩,袁世凱的語氣相當謙恭。圖登嘉措在回覆中明確表達了</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">與</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">中國的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">疏離態度</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">:&#8220;西藏人之所以不喜歡中央政府,是由於中國軍人殘暴對待他們,使他們怒火中燒。例如,不管中國軍隊如何摧毀或焚燒西藏的寺院和廟宇,當時的中國領導人都沒有任何的對策,如此則西藏人怎會不反對中國人呢?&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[6]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">袁世凱又發來一封電報,爲此前滿清軍隊在西藏的暴行道歉,並下令&#8220;恢復&#8221;達賴喇嘛的職位和封號。袁世凱聲稱,既然中華民國建立,&#8220;五族和如一家&#8221;,達賴喇嘛自然應當&#8220;被一種深厚的依附祖國之情打動&#8221;,達賴喇嘛此前的&#8220;過錯&#8221;可以得到&#8220;寬恕&#8221;,封號&#8220;誠順贊化西天大善佛&#8221;也得以恢復。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[7]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">然而,圖登嘉措回答</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">說</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">,他不向中國政府要求原來的封號和官位,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">而</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">&#8220;希望履行在西藏的政教統治權&#8221;。正如他在印度流亡期間向清朝派來商討返藏事宜的官員所說的那樣:由於滿清領導人無視西藏的獨立與兩國間的宗教關係,現已無法再予信任,不得不終止原有的關係。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[8]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">他</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">對滿清如此,對民國也一樣。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一三年二月十三日,圖登嘉措在拉薩發表「水牛年文告」,正式宣布解除與中國之間的「供施關係」,並宣布實行諸多社會改革。這份文告被部份學者認為是「西藏獨立宣言」。雖然在西方的術語中算不上一份正式的獨立宣言,但從西藏的政治理論文獻來看,這份文件清楚地表明了達賴喇嘛要求自由的願望,以及在沒有中國封號、沒有中國干涉的情況下統治西藏的意圖。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[9]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">在這份&#8220;不僅要在西藏所有</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">縣或地區公佈,而且所有</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">縣政府必須抄錄一份備案保存的重要文件&#8221;中,圖登嘉措如此解釋西藏與蒙古、漢族和滿清的關係:&#8220;往昔與成吉思汗和俺达汗等蒙古時期,中国的明朝等各王朝,以及到五世达赖喇嘛時期開始與满清皇帝建立的,是植基于施主和僧侣间的供施关系。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[10]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">他認為,這種聯繫僅僅是宗教層面的,而不是政治層面的,西藏不是中國的屬國或中國的一部分。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[11]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">在此之前一個月,西藏與剛剛脫離中國宣佈獨立的蒙古在庫倫(</span>Urga<span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">,今烏蘭巴托)簽定了一個條約,序言寫道:「鑑於蒙古與西藏已經擺脫了滿洲王朝,脫離中國,並且已經變成獨立的國家,又鑑於這兩個國家一直信奉同一個宗教,而為了讓他們古老又相互之友誼得以強化的目的&#8230;&#8230;」整份文件裡不時使用藏文字眼「讓贊」來指稱「獨立」。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[12]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">事實上</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">具有獨立地位的西藏政府存在的時間,比中華民國統治中國大陸的時間</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">更</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">長&#8212;&#8212;中共軍隊直到一九五一年才佔領西藏。在此期間,西藏有自己的國旗、國歌、貨幣、政府、軍隊、外交關係等。西藏政府發放旅行文件給進入它國界的旅人,還有少數旅行到國外的藏人。一九二一年,西藏政府正式同意第一支珠穆朗瑪峰登山隊前往登山,當時在拉薩訪問的英國外交官查爾斯</span><span style="font-family:&quot;MS Mincho&quot;,serif;MS Mincho&quot;;MS Mincho&quot;;">&#8231;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">貝爾寫道:「我從西藏政府處得到了官方形式的一本護照,上面正式給予了攀登埃佛勒斯峰的許可證。」</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[13]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">在中華民國統治中國大陸的三十八年間,西藏與名義上隸屬中央政府(北京政府及取而代之的南京政府)的地方軍閥發生過三次小規模的戰爭,出乎意料的結果是,西藏軍隊獲得了前兩次戰爭的勝利,第三次雖然失敗卻也通過談判取得不錯的結果。當然,這並不表示西藏的軍隊具有多麽強大的戰鬥力,只能說明中國地方軍閥的軍隊不堪一戰。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一四年,北洋政府劃定康定以西(包括金沙江以西的今昌都地區在內)為&#8220;川邊特別區&#8221;,受四川省管制,引起西藏政府極大不滿。一九一七年,藏軍攻打川邊,攻破康巴地區的首府昌都,川軍指揮官彭日升向藏軍投降。史稱第一次康藏邊界糾紛(或第一次中藏戰爭)。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">一九二零</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">年至一九二二年,藏軍再度攻打川邊,奪取德格、甘孜等地,史稱第二次康藏邊</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">界糾紛(或第二次中藏戰爭)。自此,康</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">巴地</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">區大部份地區</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">處於</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">西藏政府的統治之下。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九三零年,甘孜的大金寺與白利土司發生糾紛,白利土司處於劣勢,向川軍尋求幫助。川軍將領劉文輝以此為藉口侵佔這個地區。不久,藏軍將川軍驅逐,前進到打箭爐。此後,西寧方面也發生僧院紛爭,藏軍與介入的回教徒發生衝突。統治青海的&#8220;馬家軍&#8221;首領馬步芳與劉文輝結盟,共同對付藏軍。史稱青藏戰爭(或第三次康藏邊界糾紛、第三次中藏戰爭)。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">藏軍在前線失利後,</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">圖登</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">嘉措與蔣介石協議停戰,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">但</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">蔣介石並未控制四川、青海,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">協議</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">沒有任何效果。幸運的是,四川軍閥發生內訌,自己放棄了金沙江東岸地區。此後,西藏與川軍和馬家軍分別簽訂和約。在此過程中,看不到南京中央政府有什麽作為。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">藏軍在前兩次軍事衝突中取勝,是圖登嘉措推動建立現代常備軍計劃的結果</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">。然而</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">勝利</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">也葬送了這一計劃:</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">藏軍讓</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">西藏保守</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">勢力為之側目,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">貴族和僧侶集團認為,這支現代化軍隊,如果不忠於傳統體制和既得利益集團怎麽辦?大清王朝不就是被訓練有素、糧餉充足的新軍顛覆了嗎?</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">儘管達賴喇嘛被視為在世的觀音菩薩、擁有神一樣的崇高地位,但他推動的現代化的改革仍然遭到西藏各階層的強烈反對,他並不能像神一樣一揮魔杖便讓西藏昂首闊步</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">邁入</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">現代社會。跟其他所有東方國家一樣,西藏的現代化之路坎坷不平。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:楷体">達賴與班禪:現代化及其反對者</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">一九二七年,對於西藏的首都拉薩來說是一個重要時刻:電燈亮了。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">水力發電廠和電力分配系統的興建,幾乎「隻手」由</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">留學英國歸來的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">年輕工程師仁崗所完成。這些工程都是由西藏政府主動開始並且提供經費的,圖登嘉措及其年輕的助手擦絨是積極支持者。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[14]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">電燈取代了油燈和蠟燭,給黑夜帶來光明。電燈更讓藏人意識到,一個新的時代降臨了,不管你喜不喜歡它,西藏都將被捲入其中。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措在流亡期間細心觀察英國人對印度的殖民統治,從中悟出一個道理:若繼續抱殘守缺,西藏不可能存世。西藏的生存的關鍵是啓動西化改革,圖登嘉措成為西藏現代化的開拓者。&#8220;從他一九一三年回到拉薩,一直到一九三三年圓寂為止,都一直爲藏獨努力,他改革政府、保衛國家,並且應付西藏社會中反對這些改革的勢力。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[15]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措批准成立茶葉種植園,把電訊設施、電話和汽車引入西藏。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">一九一二</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">年底,西藏成立了中央銀行(歐康),推出第一套紙幣。同年,他派遣四位年輕藏人到英國留學,並派他的心腹大臣龍廈與之同行。龍廈不只是充當監護人而已,身為&#8220;無任所大使&#8221;,還負有一項特殊使命&#8212;&#8212;學習西方民主史和民主制度,尤其是歐洲各國如何藉由選舉取代君主制度。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[16]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一三年,西藏創辦了第一所郵局,並推出第一套郵票。一九二三年,拉薩設立了第一個警察總署,同年創辦了第一所英語學校。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[17]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">從印度到拉薩的一條電報線以及一條基本的電話線,於一九二三年建構完成。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">兩條線都提供大眾使用。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措願意仿效西方的政治法律制度。他從英國引入司法制度,以遏制當時西藏上層社會廣泛存在的政治腐敗行為</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">,并且真的處罰了若干高級僧侶和貴族的貪腐行為</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">。他還將刑法修訂之後推行於西藏全境,廢除了死刑並減少了肉體刑罰。稅收制度也被引入,他希望以公平透明的稅收遏制貧富懸殊的現象&#8212;&#8212;在新政當中影響最大、阻力最大</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">的是税收制度的改革,因为新增的盐税、皮革税、羊毛税等直接触动了很多人的既得利益</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[18]</span></span></a></p> <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">正如所有後發展國家的社會改革都會遇到保守派的拼命反對一樣,達賴喇嘛的現代化改革也遭遇到西藏保守勢力的抗拒。他必須兩線作戰,對外要防範中國、英國、俄國等外部勢力對西藏的覬覦,對內則要化解乃至壓制保守派的反抗&#8212;&#8212;而西藏最大的保守派是九世班禪喇嘛。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">班禪喇嘛在宗教上的地位僅次於達賴喇嘛,但班禪喇嘛並不像達賴喇嘛那樣擁有廣泛的政治權力。當然,這並不意味著班禪喇嘛對政治沒有興趣和野心:當一九零九年清軍進入西藏、達賴喇嘛流亡印度時,班禪喇嘛拒絕與之一起流亡,留下來與清軍合作,甚至搬進達賴喇嘛在拉薩的行宮,坐上達賴喇嘛的寶座。三年後,達賴喇嘛流亡歸來並</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">如民族英雄般</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">受到民眾的讚譽,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">而与清廷合作的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">班禪喇嘛則</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">声誉受损、</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">被迫處於半隱居狀態。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">當達賴喇嘛要求班禪喇嘛提供建立藏軍的百分之二十五的稅金時,兩人原本就存在的政治對立白熱化了。班禪喇嘛在拉薩之外自給自足,有自己的地位和稅基,不願承擔這部分費用。他並沒有現代國家觀念,認為這是達賴喇嘛要瓜分他獨享的財富與權力。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九二三年十一月,達賴喇嘛逮捕了一些被召到拉薩的、忠於班禪喇嘛的官員。這一強硬舉動讓班禪喇嘛心生恐懼,遂於當月十五日,率領一隊侍從,穿過藏北草原,逃往中國內地。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[19]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">此後,班禪喇嘛再也未能回到西藏。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">他先後接受北洋政府和南京政府的冊封,一九二七年南京國民政府建立時,他致電</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">表示</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">祝賀,並於一九二九年在南京設置班禪喇嘛辦公處。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">與之相反,達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">并不热衷</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">於跟新成立的南京政府打交道,內亂頻仍的中國不是他效仿的現代化樣板</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">,他努力学习英国,包括在英国统治下蒸蒸日上的印度,他派遣大量官员到印度学习政治、经济和文化制度</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[20]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">此前</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">西藏派駐北洋政府的代表貢覺仲尼,直到一九三零年才被</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">达赖喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">任命為駐南京的總代表,西藏</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">政府</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">駐南京的辦事處直到一九三一年才成立。南京政府成立兩年之後,達賴喇嘛才在拉薩會見第一個南京派來的官員&#8212;&#8212;一名非正式的&#8220;特使&#8221;、有一半藏族血統的傳奇女子劉曼卿。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[21]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">從滿清到民國,中國對所謂&#8220;外藩&#8221;的控制,秘訣之一便是挑動其高層內鬥,即&#8220;以夷制夷&#8221;。</span> <span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">對於主動前來投奔的班禪喇嘛,南京政府如獲至寶。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">班禪逃亡,使得中國順理成章地干涉西藏事務,也讓外人認為西藏只不過是一群不和的侯國,需要中國治理。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[22]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">對於班禪喇嘛在中國的活動,達賴喇嘛方面視之為&#8220;藏奸&#8221;。西藏當局以&#8220;西藏三大寺僧俗及民眾全體大會之宣言&#8221;的名義公開批評説:</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:楷体;">班禪竟獲中央&#8220;護國宣化广慧大師&#8221;封號,並給予玉印玉冊,月俸一萬元,供應費用三万元。</span><span style="font-family:楷体">其左右仇視西藏諸人,及諾那喇嘛輩,凡與西藏爲敵者,中央概授以職位。彼輩並可至各省地方任意活動,是無異對於西藏政治之爲莫大之破壞也。以上各項,中央政府如不能予以撤銷,則中藏兩方和好恐根本上無成功之希望也。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[23]</span></span></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">隨即,班禪方面也發表宣言反駁。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">二十年代後期是達賴喇嘛和班禪喇嘛兩大活佛轉世系統建立以來,兩方關係最為惡化的阶段。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">十三世達賴喇嘛牢牢掌控著西藏的大權,但班禪喇嘛的出走仍然給他的改革計劃造成巨大衝擊。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">隨之發生的一系列騷動和衝突,讓他不得不放棄新稅改革等革新政策。在內外壓力之下,他違心地將所有支持改革的官員降級,這些菁英分子成了替罪羊。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">西藏喪失了成為現代國家,在現代世界爭取一席之地的機會。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">一九二七年,中國放棄了堅持十六年的共和憲政的艱辛嘗試,走向了黨治國家的歧途;而西藏則中止了現代化改革,重新隱入中世紀的黑暗之中。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">圖登嘉措</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">宛如清朝的光绪皇帝,只能算是半截子的改革者。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">多年以後,第十四世達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">丹增</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">嘉</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">措在回顧這段歷史的時候,坦誠地表示,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">十三世達賴喇嘛的作為可以批評,&#8220;畢竟他是掌權者,他看到了改革的需要。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">雖然出現了阻力,但他該堅持下去,繼續進行他的計畫,因為到最后真理必會出頭。他該把他的理由告訴民眾,讓他們瞭解。但他沒有那樣做,這是他的錯誤。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[24]</span></span></span></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:楷体">擦絨為何沒能成為西藏的凱末爾?</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">十三世達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措最大的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">改革</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">創舉</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">是設置一支</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">現代</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">職業軍隊。一九一三年,他剛回到拉薩,就在文告中指出&#8220;我們是一個依照佛法,享有和平自由之獨立小國,爲了與世界各國看齊,我們在維護自己家園的同時,需要有效地抵抗外國侵略以保國土,這雖然會稍微增加臣民百姓的負擔,但你們要對此做出忍耐。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[25]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">他</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">当然</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">知道,建立和維持一支常備軍,需要龐大的財政支持,這就要求對西藏原有的經濟模式和稅務制度作出重大改革,而這樣做必然激起相當程度的反彈。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">同年,西藏歷史上的第一支正規軍正式組建,擦絨&#183;達桑占堆北被任命為藏軍總司令,同時聘請英國教官訓練這支軍隊。藏軍在遠古時代曾有過鐡血的歷史,在唐代末期攻入長安,與唐朝的軍隊和阿拉伯帝國的軍隊併列爲亞洲三支最強大的軍隊。後來吐蕃帝國解體,藏傳佛教成為全民信仰,尚武傳統終成絕響。乾隆年間新組織的藏軍受清廷控制,到了</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">道光年間才由噶廈政府直接控制,當時僅有三千多人,由六名代本(相當於團長)統轄,已不具備</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">国防能力</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">擦絨於一八八五年生於一個最底層的農奴家庭,他的父親務農兼營鑄箭。在父親破產後,他奔赴他鄉謀生,追隨達賴喇嘛流亡蒙古,成爲其近侍。在達賴喇嘛第二次流亡途中,他奮勇阻擊追趕的清兵,得到達賴喇嘛的器重。一九一三年,達賴喇嘛返回西藏後,他被封爲札薩,成為貴族,與貴族擦絨家的女兒結婚後取名爲擦絨。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[26]</span></span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">擦絨兼有噶倫(類似於行政大臣)、藏軍總司令、造幣廠和兵工廠負責人等四個重要職務,他幾乎成了達賴喇嘛的家人,以及&#8220;一人之下,万人之上&#8221;的實權派。面對日益擴大的外部危機,擦絨提出擴軍三倍的計劃</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">,希望尽快建立一支一万人的常备军</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">英國人柏爾在《西藏之過去與現在》一書中指出:&#8220;西藏之錢大半耗於宗教機關,常備軍餉不易籌措,縱有大部分產業可以斂稅,而爲僧侶貴族所盤據,款既難得,則軍官更爲難得。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[27]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">果然</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">,由貴族和僧侶把持的議會的回答,讓擦絨大失所望:每年只能增加五百至六百名新兵,直到藏軍總人數達到一萬七千人為止,這個過程需要二十年才能完成。但是,這種蝸牛般的建軍速度,能拯救西藏免受日漸咄咄逼人的外力的侵犯嗎?</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">當時,英國人在江孜創辦了一所軍官訓練學校,圖登嘉措派遣仲巴札薩、多仁台吉等高級官員入校受訓。英國人麥克唐納在《旅藏二十年》一書中記載:&#8220;西藏政府決定用新式戰斗方法,訓練軍隊,事經印度政府批准後,西藏一次派遣五十名士兵和軍官到江孜,由商務委員會公署的衛隊英印指揮官出來訓練他們。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[28]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">這些受訓回來的人士,成為新式藏軍的中堅力量。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">一九二零年代中期的西藏,是主張現代化和傾向西方的集團佔上風的時代。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">一個受過西方文化教育和軍事訓練的軍官群體出現了:索康代本組織了籃球賽,並在拉薩修建一個網球場。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">其他幾個藏軍代本包括果措在內效仿英國人的髮式剪短頭髮。他們的生活方式西化,習慣喝甜茶、握手、打網球和馬球。保守派將這些軍官比喻為猴子,因為他們不穿藏袍而是西裝革履,人們只能看到他們的腿部。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">以擦絨爲首的新式軍官集團生機勃勃,具有團體精神和國家意識。他們相信,是軍事力量而不是喇嘛們的祈禱鋪平了十三世達賴喇嘛返回西藏的道路。雖然他們不是一般意義上的政黨,但他們一致認為,過去極端保守的喇嘛們使西藏屈服於他人,他們不能讓這種狀況繼續下去。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[29]</span></span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">幾乎與此同時,在西亞的土耳其,以凱末爾為首的軍官團引導</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">日薄西山</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">的帝國走上現代化、世俗化的共和國之路。土耳其雖然未能恢復當年帝國的輝煌,但在</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">伊斯蘭</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">世界算是率先邁進現代化的區域大國。那麽,擦絨為什麼未能成為西藏的凱末爾呢?或者換一個問題:西藏軍隊乃至整個西藏社會的現代化改革在二十年代</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">後期</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">為何</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">功虧一簣</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">?</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">首先,西藏的西化程度遠遠比不上土耳其。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">土耳其位於歐亞兩大洲的交接點,與西方對抗並吸收西方的文化和技術已有數百年歷史;而西藏則長期處於遺世獨立狀態,是一個封閉甚至停滯的社會。以擦絨爲首的藏軍集團的力量,比起其他兩大保守派集團&#8212;&#8212;以三大寺廟爲代表的喇嘛集團和政府中的保守官員集團&#8212;&#8212;來相當孱弱。中級以上、受過教育、有獨立思考能力的軍官,僅僅數十人而已。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">其次,佛教對西藏社會的控制和滲透超過伊斯蘭教在土耳其社會中的地位。西藏的僧侶集團不僅掌握宗教權力,在政治和經濟方面也佔有絕對優勢。西藏社會的絕大部分財富都被寺廟消耗殆盡,要讓他們讓渡出一部分作為軍費或現代化建設所急需的資金,難於上青天。十三世達賴喇嘛堅持政教合一的統治,這個不能適應新時代的傳統體制,直到</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">二十世紀</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">九十年代</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">在</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">流亡藏人海外聚居地達蘭薩拉才被十四世達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">宣告</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">廢止。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[30]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">第三,新式軍官集團之於西藏社會,宛如油浮在水面,而非鹽融入水中。擦絨等高級軍官過於依賴達賴喇嘛的信任,他們的態度和觀點沒有給西藏社會帶來基本的變化。他們享受若干特權,高高在上,不去爭取民眾的支持,也不想去贏得這樣的支持。普通民眾對這個階層持懷疑看法,毫無近代民族國家觀念的民眾,對於現代軍隊的保家衛國功能並無深切的共鳴。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">多年篳路藍縷的建設,一旦遇到挫折,便前功盡棄。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">一九二四年年初,軍官團召開秘密會議,商議如何用激進方式推動社會變革。由於膽怯,擦絨沒有發表講話&#8212;&#8212;他缺乏土耳其的凱末爾和埃及的納賽爾那樣勇往直前、義無反顧的領袖氣質。農奴的身份讓他存有嚴重的自卑感,更無法突破與達賴喇嘛之間的主奴關係。於是,只好由其他幾名地位次要的軍官發言,呼籲大家團結一致。會議通過一份決議,試圖剝奪達賴喇嘛的世俗權力,只保留其宗教統治權,軍隊接管權力之後加速改革步伐。大部分軍官在這份盟約上簽了名,有少數軍官沒有簽名,有一個叛徒將此事報告達賴喇嘛。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">圖登嘉措是玩弄政治的老手,他搞到這份秘密盟約。然後,不動聲色地周密部署對策。他派遣擦絨去印度執行公務,讓藏軍軍官們陷入群龍無首的境地。等擦絨一離開,他立即清洗軍官集團。當擦絨從印度返回的時候,一切已今非昔比。不等擦絨回到拉薩,圖登嘉措即派遣一名特使來到離拉薩還有兩天路程的曲水,向擦絨宣佈免職的命令。之後,鑒於擦絨在軍中的威望和英國人的支持,擦絨沒有受到過於嚴厲的制裁,仍然保有噶倫的職位直到一九三零年,但被剝奪了所有實權。擦絨奉命籌辦札什城機器廠並創建水電廠。他在印度請了幾位外國技師前來拉薩。保守派趁機製造擦絨給英國人建立領事館的謠言,民眾發起騷動,將擦絨毆打得幾乎至死&#8212;&#8212;簡直就像是一場小規模的、&#8220;西藏的義和團暴動&#8221;。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[31]</span></span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">擦絨退出了所有的公職,致力於經商,將原本債台高築的擦絨家族打理得井井有條。一九四零年代</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">擦絨家族成為了西藏最為富有的貴族之一。一九五九年,拉薩發生反抗中共的暴動,擦絨參與其中,被中共逮捕入獄,並於同年五月十四日在獄中遇害。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">擦絨及其他藏軍軍官被解職,中斷了西藏的現代化嘗試,助長了圖登嘉措的獨裁統治,並致使藏軍走向極度衰落的時期。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">一九二七年,英國外交官諾布頓珠重訪拉薩時,尖酸刻薄地描述了藏軍和警察的概貌:&#8220;藏軍每天都在操練,但是他們的制服實際上已經完全破爛不堪了,他們中的許多人一隻腳穿着靴子,另一隻腳卻赤裸著,每當我經過他們的駐地,他們總是向我行乞。警察大約有兩百人,他們的衣著比藏軍更破。我發現,如果能夠想到辦法或找到機會,藏軍和警察部隊中的每一個人都想從這裡逃走。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[32]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">這樣一支軍隊顯然無法承擔</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">保家衛國</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">的功能。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">如果擦絨等人推行的西藏現代化之路獲得某種程度的成功,西藏的現代史會因此而寫嗎?二十多年之後的一九五零年,西藏或許仍然無法抵抗如狼似虎的共產黨軍隊的入侵,但藏軍至少不會一觸即潰,西藏政府的戰時運作也不會進退失據&#8212;&#8212;當共軍進攻的消息傳到駐守昌都的阿沛處,阿沛立即通知拉薩,並請求噶廈的指示。不可思議的是,噶廈沒有立即回應。在絕望之中,直到十月十五日,阿沛的隨員崔科才與噶廈的一位助理丹拉終於聯絡上。但他被告知,噶倫們都在野餐,不能打擾。崔科生氣地說:&#8220;吃屎野餐!&#8221;這是昌都與拉薩最後的通訊。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[33]</span></span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">多年以後,十四世達賴喇嘛丹增嘉措宣佈將政治權力移交給由民選產生的政治領袖,雖然那只是數十萬人口的流亡社區,但這標誌著西藏人在民主化和現代化的嘗試上走到中國的前面。回顧當年那場失敗的改革,丹增嘉措感慨萬千地説:</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:楷体;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">問題並沒有在一九二零年代就結束,一直到一九五零年代。</span><span style="font-family:楷体;Microsoft YaHei&quot;">當中國人進入藏東之後,拉薩有官員專門負責收聽北京的廣播,偶爾會向攝政報告,當時我尚未掌權。</span><span style="font-family:楷体;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">一天他向攝政報告中國可能入侵,結果宮務大臣安撫他説:&#8220;一點也不必擔心,因為我們這裡是高級喇嘛和神明之所在,因此不必擔心中國的軍隊。&#8221;這太愚蠢了,完全是迷信無知。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:SimSun;Microsoft YaHei&quot;;">[34]</span></span></span></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:楷体;">在&#8220;中國的西藏&#8221;與&#8220;世界的西藏&#8221;之縫隙中</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">一八七六年,十三世達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">出生的那一年,英國迫使清朝簽訂</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">《</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">煙台條約</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">》(又稱《滇案條約》、《芝罘條約》</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">),其中第三則涉及西藏:&#8220;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">英國得由北京經四川入藏至印度,清廷需妥為照料保護。&#8221;清廷擅自將部分西藏的主權讓渡給英國。西藏方面卻完全不曉得有這份條約的存在,而成為無辜的受害者。對於圖登嘉措來說,他剛一出生,西藏就受此條約的束縛,&#8220;他的一生是想要除掉此一束縛之苦戰&#8221;。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[35]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">當圖登嘉措在一八九五年承擔政權之時,正好是清朝在對日甲午戰爭中慘敗,中國從東亞最強勢的帝國淪落</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">爲</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">列強案板上的魚肉。清廷連內地的十八行省都不能保全,更無暇顧及西藏事務。圖登嘉措不得不直接與此前西藏從未遇到過的英國和俄國周旋,&#8220;中國之西藏&#8221;一變而爲&#8220;世界之西藏&#8221;。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">傳統的中國既不是歐洲列強那樣的現代民族國家,也不是羅馬、土耳其那樣有著不同臣民和文化形態的&#8220;世界帝國&#8221;。美國學者黎安友認為,與此前中國的王朝一樣,雖然是滿人創建的清朝,也自以為是世界文明的中心,針對所有臣民推行一條&#8220;公正無私的仁政&#8221;。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[36]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">清朝如此處理與西藏的關係:並不尋求對西藏實質性的統治,享受西藏承認的宗主國地位;作為交換,清朝的皇帝拋棄了滿人的薩滿教信仰,改信藏傳佛教。但當英國勢力滲入西藏,清朝逐漸改變對西藏的策略,在其統治的最后十年,試圖將西藏&#8220;行省化&#8221;,正如在西北開拓&#8220;新疆&#8221;一樣。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">國際化和全球化給西藏帶來危機和困惑,也讓西藏的統治精英睜眼看到外面日新月異的世界。在印度流亡</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">歲月,圖登嘉措看到英國的強大實力,也發現外交的重要性。一旦西藏的政局穩定,他便派出夏扎&#183;班覺多吉率領西藏代表團參加英國倡導召開的西姆拉會議,與英國、中華民國的代表談判邊境劃分等問題。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一九一四年四月二十七日,西藏、英國和中國三方全權代表達成三方簽署的條約,其基本內容爲:西藏劃分為「外藏」、「內藏」兩部分。「內藏」大致相當於安多和康巴東部,可以視為中立緩衝區。「外藏」大致相當於衛藏和康巴西部,「將繼續由拉薩西藏政府管轄,以中國為宗主國,但中國不會干預其行政,不向其派駐軍隊和官員,不得進行殖民活動」。在這份條約中,承認中國對西藏的宗主權和承認西藏的自治權本身自相矛盾,這是三方妥協達成的&#8220;最不壞&#8221;的結果。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">中國代表陳貽范於前一天在該條約上簽了字,第二天中國政府又反悔,宣佈不承認該條約。&#8220;正式割讓土地以及規定不能將內藏變成中國行省的內容,似乎嚴重傷害了中國人的自尊心。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[37]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">最終《西姆拉條約》上只有西藏和英國的代表簽字,麥克馬洪線後來成為中國和印度爭端的導火索。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <span style="font-family: SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">西姆拉會議之後,西藏的地位有所改善。西藏與中國仍然處於某種曖昧的戰爭狀態,但西藏的國際地位得到英國的支持與承諾,這是圖登嘉措在位期間取得的最重要的外交成就。作為弱國的領袖,他不得不周旋在英國、中國、俄國乃至後來居上的日本諸多勢力之間,採取某種&#8220;騎墻&#8221;的外交策略。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">一九二九年,蔣介石給達賴喇嘛寫了一封信,南京政府蒙藏委員會擬具&#8220;對於西藏問題如何解決&#8221;之條款八項,由達賴喇嘛此前派駐雍和宮之特使貢覺仲尼帶回西藏。其中,達賴喇嘛再次確認了西藏與中國是&#8220;施主關係&#8221;。而最具諷刺意義的是,有一條居然是要求達賴班禪加入國民黨,可見當時南京政府的高官們何等愚蠢傲慢,亦毫無尊重宗教信仰自由的觀念。而西藏政府對此要求的回答是:&#8220;達賴喇嘛現在年高,加之政教事務甚繁,又因三大寺及上下居巴僧俗官員未經同意之前,不能來京。至班禪住內地,除札什倫布廟宇教務外,素無其他政務可管,自應就近加入國民黨,但素無解決藏事之發言權。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[38]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">這個回答反過來將了南京政府一軍:達賴喇嘛本人拒絕加入國民黨,投靠中國的班禪喇嘛即便加入了國民黨,也不能介入西藏事務。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">一九三三年,十三世達賴喇嘛</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">圖登嘉措</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">在拉薩病逝。有人説他跟上一任達賴喇嘛一樣是被保守勢力下毒害死。</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一向身體健康的圖登嘉措,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">被</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">一場小小的感冒奪去生命,最後那段日子與外界隔絕,不得不讓人心存疑惑。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">臨終前,圖登嘉措留下的預言與未來西藏的發展軌跡驚人地吻合:</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family: 楷体;">在赤色共產黨現在正到處進行恐怖和破壞的時候,我們必須特別警惕自己免受野蠻的暴行。他們積惡至極。他們已經揉爛蒙古,並嚴禁尋找宗教領袖哲布尊丹巴的轉世。他們搶劫和破壞僧院,強迫僧人加入他們的軍隊,否則就地處決。他們所到之地,宗教必遭摧毀,所經之地,任何佛法教導都不允許。我相信你已經聽到了烏蘭巴托和其它地方傳出來的消息。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family: 楷体;">為時不久,赤色的屠殺將必闖入我們的前門。</span><span style="font-family: 楷体;">無論是我們自起內訌,或是來自外面共產國家的威脅,我們遲早都必須直接面對。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family: 楷体;">這種情況發生時,我們必須隨時準備保衛自己。否則,我們的文化和精神傳統將被徹底根除。&#8230;&#8230;人民與與生俱來的權利和財產將被掠奪,我們會成為征服者的奴隸,像乞丐一樣到處流浪,束手無策,生活在悲慘世界之中,充滿極端痛苦與恐懼,度日如年。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">十三世達賴的遺體趺坐接受瞻仰期間,人們發現他的頭從朝南轉向朝東北。負責主持轉世靈童尋訪工作的人員往拉薩的東北方向尋找靈童,並在安多地區找到了。這名靈童被確認為新的達賴喇嘛,他就是十四世達賴喇嘛、諾貝爾和平獎得主、具有世界影響力的宗教領袖丹增嘉措。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">丹增嘉措自青年時代即流亡海外,再未踏上西藏的土地。他卻完成了對作爲佛教之&#8220;偏房&#8221;的藏傳佛教的一場脫胎換骨的改革,宛如五百年前馬丁&#183;路德和加爾文對天主教的變革。他讓區域性和民族性的藏傳佛教成為一種極具生機與活力的世界性宗教。</span></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">同時,丹增嘉措帶領流亡藏人在印度達蘭薩拉,從無到有地創建了一個小而美的&#8220;域外西藏&#8221;,這個小小的流亡政府及其社區,宛如一朵在冰雪風暴中傲然綻放的雪蓮花。從一九九二年開始,丹增嘉措逐漸放棄了政治事務的最終決定權,讓噶廈和議會擁有全權。二零零一年,西藏流亡政府第一次實行政府首腦(首席部長)直接選舉,丹增嘉措不再處理任何政府事務。二零一一年,丹增嘉措完全卸下政治領袖的責任,宣佈說:&#8220;年輕時,我就抱有引導西藏政體走向民主化的心愿,因此,在承擔西藏政治責任之初,我就嘗試了基層的改革;流亡期間,又經過各種努力,如今,在&#8216;流亡藏人憲章&#8217;的框架下,民眾可以直接選舉人民代表和噶倫赤巴(行政首長),實現了名副其實的民主。&#8221;三月十四日,丹增嘉措致函第十四屆西藏人民議會全體議員,「不再擔任領導人的職責,而是由人民選舉產生的領導人承擔起所有政治權責」。至此,從五世達賴喇嘛以來的政教合一制度畫上句號,西藏的現代化之路邁進嶄新的歷史階段。</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[39]</span></span></a></p> <p style="text-indent:21.0pt;"><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">雖然西藏本土仍在中國的奴役之下,甚至持續發生藏人以自焚的極端方式反抗中共暴政的悲慘事件,但藏人的未來並不悲觀。台灣學者李酉潭在達蘭薩拉發現了宗教、道德、生態與文化四大軟實力,&#8220;達蘭薩拉其實就像梵蒂岡一樣,四道光芒的影響力無遠弗屆,其並不侷限於土地大小,而是以西藏文化的軟實力來傳遞給世人。&#8221;</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40"><span><span style="font-size:10.5pt;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;">[40]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">在</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;">此</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;Times New Roman&quot;;Times New Roman&quot;;">意義上,在西藏之外的流亡藏人也參與著對未來中國的形塑。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <div><br clear="all" /> <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /> <div id="ftn1"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[1]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">(印度)潘卡吉&#183;米什拉(</span>Pankaj Mishra<span style="font-family:SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《從帝國廢墟中崛起:從梁啓超到泰戈爾,喚醒亞洲與改變世界》,(台北</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">聯經出版,</span>2013<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">,頁</span>56-57<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn2"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[2]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">):《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,(北京:時事出版社,</span>1994<span style="font-family: SimSun;">年),</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">頁</span>45<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn3"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[3]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">唐丹鸿:《西藏问题:饿虎饥狼的猎物》,見&#8220;縱覽中國&#8221;網站,</span><a href="http://minzhuzhongguo.org/ArtShow.aspx?AID=68795">http://minzhuzhongguo.org/ArtShow.aspx?AID=68795</a><span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn4"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[4]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">):《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">頁</span>61<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn5"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[5]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">第十四世達賴喇嘛丹增嘉措:《我的土地,我的人民》,(台北:台灣圖博之友會,</span>2001<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>19<span style="font-family:SimSun;">-</span>20<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn6"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[6]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">邁可爾&#183;</span>C<span style="font-family:SimSun;">&#183;范沃爾&#183;普拉赫(</span>Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag<span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的地位:從國際法的角度對西藏歷史、權利與前景</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">分析》,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">(</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">台北</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">達賴喇嘛西藏宗教基金會,</span>2008<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">,頁</span>90<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn7"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[7]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">頁</span>61<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn8"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[8]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">邁可爾&#183;</span>C<span style="font-family:SimSun;">&#183;范沃爾&#183;普拉赫(</span>Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag<span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的地位:從國際法的角度對西藏歷史、權利與前景</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">分析》,頁</span>89-90<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn9"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[9]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,頁</span>63-64<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn10"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[10]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">邁可爾&#183;</span>C<span style="font-family:SimSun;">&#183;范沃爾&#183;普拉赫(</span>Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag<span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的地位:從國際法的角度對西藏歷史、權利與前景</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">分析》,頁</span>88-89<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn11"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[11]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">這種看法被很多藏人所接受,也有學者不完全認同。藏族學者茨仁夏加認為,僅僅用喇嘛與施主的關係來界定西藏與中國的關係是不夠的。西藏人過去將中國的皇帝視為宗教與世俗兩者兼具的制度,在藏文的史料中,清朝皇帝一直被稱為文殊菩薩的轉世化身,對他的定義,不只是世俗的施主而已,也在佛教的眾神之中佔有一席之地,對於西藏行使一定程度的世俗權力。但清朝皇帝滿足於儀式性與象徵性的臣服,並未試圖將西藏與中國融合在一起。參閱茨仁夏加:《龍在雪域:一九四七年後的西藏》,(台北:左岸文化,</span>2011<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>15<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn12"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[12]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">嘉央諾布:《獨立的西藏:一些事實》,</span><a href="http://www.rangzen.net/rangzen-facts/%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%EF%BC%8D%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9B%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6/">http://www.rangzen.net/rangzen-facts/%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%EF%BC%8D%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9B%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6/</a><span style="font-family: SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn13"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[13]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">嘉央諾布:《獨立的西藏:一些事實》,</span><a href="http://www.rangzen.net/rangzen-facts/%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%EF%BC%8D%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9B%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6/">http://www.rangzen.net/rangzen-facts/%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%EF%BC%8D%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%9B%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6/</a><span style="font-family: SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn14"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[14]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">擦絨</span><span style="font-family:&quot;MS Mincho&quot;,serif;MS Mincho&quot;;MS Mincho&quot;;">&#8231;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">占堆朗傑</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《報效國家:西藏軍司令長官擦絨</span><span style="font-family:&quot;MS Mincho&quot;,serif;MS Mincho&quot;;MS Mincho&quot;;">&#8231;</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">達桑占堆傳記》,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">(美國:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">雪獅出版社,</span>2000<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">,頁</span>62<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn15"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[15]</span></span></a> Thomas Laird<span style="font-family:SimSun;">:《西藏的故事:與達賴喇嘛談西藏歷史》,(台北:聯經出版,</span>2008<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>226<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn16"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[16]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">圖登嘉措派龍廈攜四名中等階級子弟赴英國留學,宛如清廷派容閎攜若干幼童赴美留學。其中,仁崗學電機、吉卜學電報、門沖學採礦、崗卡學軍事。見牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,(台北:唵阿哞出版社,</span>1997<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>475-476<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn17"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[17]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">《</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">歷代達賴喇嘛簡傳</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">之第十三世達賴喇嘛》,見</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">第十四世達賴喇嘛官方國際華文網站</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">,</span><a href="http://www.dalailamaworld.com/topic.php?t=132">http://www.dalailamaworld.com/topic.php?t=132</a><span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn18"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[18]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,頁</span>479<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn19"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[19]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">喜饒尼瑪、蘇發祥:《蒙藏委員會檔案中的西藏事務》,(北京:中央民族大學出版社,</span>2006<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>171<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn20"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[20]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,頁</span>477<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn21"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[21]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">劉曼卿雖然被後人演繹成&#8220;藏地女欽差&#8221;乃至&#8220;中藏友好&#8221;、&#8220;西藏屬於中國&#8221;的見證,但從她進入西藏的過程就可以發現,雖然她是南京政府的&#8220;特使&#8221;,要入境西藏</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">仍然</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">必須得到西藏</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">當局</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">的同意,甚至不得不在川藏邊境等候數十天之久。參閱丁小文:《民國藏地&#8220;女欽差&#8221;:劉曼卿傳》,(北京:二十一世紀出版社,</span>2013<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年)。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn22"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[22]</span></span></a> Thomas Laird<span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的故事:與達賴喇嘛談西藏歷史》,頁</span>232<span style="font-family: SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn23"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[23]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">喜饒尼瑪、蘇發祥</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《蒙藏委員會檔案中的西藏事務》,頁</span>200<span style="font-family:SimSun;">-</span>204<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn24"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[24]</span></span></a> Thomas Laird<span style="font-family:SimSun;">:《西藏的故事:與達賴喇嘛談西藏歷史》,頁</span>233<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn25"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[25]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">邁可爾&#183;</span>C<span style="font-family:SimSun;">&#183;范沃爾&#183;普拉赫(</span>Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag<span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的地位:從國際法的角度對西藏歷史、權利與前景</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">分析》,頁</span>89<span style="font-family: SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn26"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[26]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,頁</span>68<span style="font-family: SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn27"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[27]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">轉引自牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,頁</span>474<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn28"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[28]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">轉引自牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,頁</span>475<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn29"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[29]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,頁</span>90-92<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn30"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[30]</span></span></a><span style="font-family:SimSun;"> 中華民國的一個高級考察團在關於西藏的考察報告中指出,西藏社會可以用四句話概括,&#8220;宗教至上,階級森嚴,貴族專政,民生困苦&#8221;。報告認為:&#8220;西藏實爲一神權支配下之社會,人民知識落後,惟知迷信宗教,少數貴族乃利用宗教勢力,以造成一般人民之階級觀念與安命心理,雖受無窮痛苦而莫自拔。然則如何提高西藏之文化,改善藏民之生活,是皆我中央政府之責任也。&#8221;雖然該報告不無中國中心主義的傾向,但其所指出的西藏社會的問題,仍頗具參考價值。參閱黃慕松、吳忠信、趙守鈺、戴傳賢:《奉使辦理藏事報告書》,(北京:中國藏學出版社,</span>1993<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>157<span style="font-family:SimSun;">-</span>159<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn31"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[31]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,頁</span>502<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn32"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[32]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">(美)梅&#183;戈爾斯坦(</span>Melvyn C. Goldstein<span style="font-family:SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《喇嘛王國的覆滅》,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">頁</span>139<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn33"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[33]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">茨仁夏加</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《龍在雪域:一九四七年後的西藏》,頁</span>75<span style="font-family: SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn34"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[34]</span></span></a> Thomas Laird<span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的故事:與達賴喇嘛談西藏歷史》,頁</span>234<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn35"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[35]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">(日)山口瑞鳳:《西藏》(下),(台北:全佛文化事業,</span>2003<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年),頁</span>547<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn36"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[36]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">(美)黎安友</span><span style="font-family: SimSun">(</span><span style="font-family:SimSun">Andrew J. Nathan)、施安道(Andrew Scobell):</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《尋求安全感的中國》,(台北:左岸文化,</span>2013<span style="font-family: SimSun;">年),頁</span>60<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn37"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[37]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">邁可爾&#183;</span>C<span style="font-family:SimSun;">&#183;范沃爾&#183;普拉赫(</span>Michael C. Van Walt Van Praag<span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《西藏的地位:從國際法的角度對西藏歷史、權利與前景</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">的</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">分析》,頁</span>97-98<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn38"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[38]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family:SimSun;">牙含章:《達賴喇嘛轉世傳奇》,頁</span>505-506<span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn39"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[39]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">參閱蘇嘉宏</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《民主在流亡中轉型》,</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">(台北:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">商鼎數位出版,</span>2012<span style="font-family:SimSun;">年</span><span style="font-family: SimSun;">)</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> <div id="ftn40"> <p><a href="file:///C:/Users/kuidechen/Downloads/18%E3%80%80%E5%9C%96%E7%99%BB%E5%98%89%E6%8E%AA%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96%E9%81%94%E8%B3%B4%E5%96%87%E5%98%9B%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%E7%9A%84%E5%B1%95%E9%96%8B%E8%88%87%E9%A0%93%E6%8C%AB.doc#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40"><span><span style="font-size:9.0pt;font-family:&quot;Calibri&quot;,sans-serif;Times New Roman&quot;;">[40]</span></span></a> <span style="font-family: SimSun;">李酉潭</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">:</span><span style="font-family:SimSun;">《來自達蘭薩拉的四道光芒:宗教、道德、生態與文化》,見&#8220;縱覽中國&#8221;網站,</span> <a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtSho.aspx?AID=126240">http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtSho.aspx?AID=126240</a><span style="font-family:SimSun;">。</span></p> </div> </div>