古代反贪设计的实际效果

<p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">历史学家吴晗说:&#8220;一部二十四史充满了贪污的故事&#8221;,贪污现象&#8220;无代无之&#8221;,&#8220;竟是与史实同寿!&#8221;</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">的确,打开中国的史书,不绝于书的就是关于贪腐的记载。有贪腐,就需反贪腐。吴晗总结说:&#8220;历朝的政治家用尽了心计,想法子肃清贪污,树立廉洁的吏治,不外两种办法:第一种是厚禄,他们以为官吏之所以不顾廉耻,倒行逆施,主要原因是禄不足以养廉,如国家所给俸禄足够生活,则一般中人之资,受过教育的应该知道自爱。如再违约受赃,便是自暴自弃,可以重法绳之。第二种是严刑,国家制定法令,犯法的立置刑章,和全国共弃之。前者例如宋,后者例如明初。&#8221;厚禄、严刑两种方法,的确是中国古代主要的反贪思想,相应地也曾经落实到制度设计,并进行了实践,但实践的结果是反贪效果并不理想。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 21px; font-family: 宋体;">中国古代反贪思想及制度设计的实际效果</span></strong></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体;">&#8220;高薪&#8221;无法&#8220;养廉&#8221;</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">吴晗先生所说的&#8220;厚禄&#8221;,当代的说法是&#8220;高薪&#8221;。&#8220;高薪养廉&#8221;,也是中国当下不断有人提议的。不过,从历史实践来看,&#8220;高薪&#8221;并不能&#8220;养廉&#8221;。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">中国古代各王朝中,文官待遇最好的是宋代。吴晗先生介绍说:&#8220;宋代官俸最厚,京朝官有月俸,有春冬服(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">绫、绢、绵</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),有禄粟,有职钱,有元随</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">傔</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人衣粮、</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">傔</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人餐钱。此外又有茶酒厨料之给,薪蒿炭盐诸物之给,饲马刍粟之给,米面羊口之给。外官则别有公用钱,有职田。小官无职田者别有茶汤钱。给赐优裕,入仕的人都可得到生活的保障,不必顾念身家,一心一意替国家作事。&#8221;宋代对官员的生活的确很照顾,由此而给国家财政造成很大负担,冗官冗费一直是宋代的大问题。但是,事实是否像吴晗先生所说的官员不贪污、&#8220;一心一意替国家作事&#8221;呢?事实并非如此,宋代贪腐大案不少,著名贪官也很多。早在宋太祖时代,据不完全统计,查处的较大的贪污案就有</span>30<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">多起。北宋后期,贪污之风盛行,&#8220;士或玩法贪污,遂致小大循习,货赂公行,莫之能禁。外则监司守令,内则公卿大夫,托公循私,诛求百姓,公然窃取,略无畏惮&#8221;。著名贪官有因受徽宗宠信而被时人称为&#8220;六贼&#8221;的蔡京、王黼、童贯、梁师成、李彦、朱</span><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 13px; font-family: 宋体; color: #444444;">勔</span></strong><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">,以及杨戬、高俅等人。近年出版的《中国反贪史》详细介绍了宋代贪腐的史实,从中可以看到宋代贪腐相当严重,看起来并没有比其他朝代好多少。</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">由此可知,高薪并没有达到养廉的效果,宋代实行的厚禄制很难说起到多少扼制贪腐的作用。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">另一个实践是清代自雍正年间开始实行的&#8220;养廉银&#8221;制度。清代实行&#8220;养廉银&#8221;制度之前,</span>2.3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万名汉族文武官员年俸(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">每年工资总额</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)是</span>140<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万两银子光景,而养廉银制度实施之后,养廉银总额高达</span>428<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万两,是年俸的</span>3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍多,相当于平均收入比原来提高</span>3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍,实际收入是原来的</span>4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍。养廉银不是平均发放的,而是官位越高,养廉银越多,总督、巡抚一级每年有一二万两银子,知县几百两到一二千两,最少的只有几十两、几两。从养廉银对年俸银的倍数来看,总督可高达</span>111<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">如陕甘、云贵总督</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),巡抚可高达</span>84<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">如山东、山西、河南巡抚</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),知县最高可达</span>50<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍。养廉银的标准,是根据各省官员上报的认为能够廉洁的标准来制定的,就是官员自认拿这些钱办公、生活已经够用,保证能够廉洁的标准。(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">见表</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)</span></p><table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="margin: 0px 0px 10px; padding: 0px; border-collapse: collapse; width: 690px; max-width: 100%; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: solid; border-color: windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 黑体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">品 级</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 黑体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">官 职</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 黑体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">岁俸银(两/年)</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 黑体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">养廉银(两/年)</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 黑体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">倍数(养廉银/岁俸银)</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">从一品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">总督</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">180</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">13000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">20000</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">72</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">111</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">正二品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">巡抚</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">155</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">10000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">15000</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">65</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">97</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">从二品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">布政使</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">155</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">5000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">9000</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">32</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">58</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">正三品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">按察使</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">130</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">3000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">8444</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">23</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">65</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">正四品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">道员</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">105</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">1500</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">6000</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">14</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">57</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">从四品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">知府</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">105</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">1000</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">4000</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">10</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">38</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">正五品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">同知</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">80</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">400</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">1600</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">5</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">20</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">正六品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">知州</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">60</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">500</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">2000</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">8</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">33</span></p></td></tr><tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><td width="64" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">正七品</span></p></td><td width="57" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">知县</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">45</span></p></td><td width="75" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">400</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">2259</span></p></td><td width="198" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 7px; word-break: break-all; border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: #dddddd windowtext windowtext #dddddd; max-width: 100%; word-wrap: break-word !important; box-sizing: border-box !important;"><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">9</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 宋体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">~</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">50</span></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 黑体; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">资料来源:</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; font-family: 楷体_GB2312; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;">光绪《大清会典事例》卷261《户部&#183;俸饷&#183;外官养廉一》,转引自黄惠贤、陈锋主编:《中国俸禄制度史》,武汉大学出版社1996年版,第550~552页。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">雍正年间实行了养廉银制度,相对于该制度实行之前,养廉银是原有薪俸的几十倍甚至一百多倍,完全可以说是高薪了,但是,官员廉洁了吗?事实是,雍正年间制度实施之初,加上雍正的高压政策,贪腐现象略有收敛;而在雍正之后的乾隆年代,贪腐非但没有减少,反而加剧了。据档案初步统计,清初顺治、康熙、雍正三朝,总督、巡抚因贪腐被查处的案件不过十余件,而在乾隆一朝,督抚被查处案件即有</span>29<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">件。有研究统计,清代二品以上大员,因侵贪或因侵贪与另罪并罚而被处斩、处绞、令其自尽的官员共有</span>41<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,而乾隆朝则有</span>27<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人之多,其中因侵贪而被处以极刑的督抚有</span>17<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,如闽浙总督陈辉祖、江西巡抚郝硕、浙江巡抚王</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体; color: #333333;">亶</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">望、山东巡抚国泰等,皆是大贪。乾隆四十六年(</span>1781<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)被处斩的王</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体; color: #333333;">亶</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">望,家产被查抄后估值银达&#8220;三百余万(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">两</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)之多&#8221;。</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">在乾隆后期,甚至出现了中国历史上第一大贪和珅。这就说明,实行养廉银制度,对反腐没有起到多少实际作用。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体;">&#8220;严刑重典&#8221;治贪不可持续</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">清代历史学家赵翼认为:&#8220;宋以忠厚开国,凡罪罚悉从轻减,独于治赃吏最严。&#8221;(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">《廿二史札记》卷24</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)北宋开国皇帝赵匡胤曾有政治遗嘱,要求他的后代善待读书人,不要杀知识分子。但在对待贪腐问题上,赵匡胤却没有松口,严惩不贷,杀了不少贪官污吏。如建隆二年(</span>961<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)四月,&#8220;商河县令李瑶坐赃杖死&#8221;,五月,&#8220;供奉官李继昭坐盗卖官船弃市&#8221;,八月,&#8220;大名府永济主簿郭</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体; color: #333333;">顗</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">坐赃弃市&#8221;;建隆三年(</span>962<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)八月,&#8220;蔡河务纲官王训等四人坐以糠土杂军粮,磔于市&#8221;;乾德三年(</span>965<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)四月,&#8220;职方员外郎李岳坐赃弃市&#8221;,八月,&#8220;殿直成德钧坐赃弃市&#8221;,十月,&#8220;太子中舍王治坐受赃杀人,弃市&#8221;,等等。</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注4</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">中国历代皇帝,尤其是开国皇帝,看到前朝因为贪腐横行导致民不聊生、社会动荡而导致王朝更替的事实,为了王朝基业的长久稳固,都会总结经验教训,重视反腐,大多主张要严刑峻法,力刹贪腐之风。如上述宋太祖外,明朝开国皇帝朱元璋的反腐力度尤其惊人,其严酷做法,导致政治气氛紧张甚至恐怖,甚至已到&#8220;官不聊生&#8221;,让人不敢做官(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">&#8220;人不愿仕&#8221;</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)的地步。其做法包括:</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">降低贪腐被处死刑标准。朱元璋制定和颁布《大明律》,对官吏贪赃枉法犯罪的处罚规定比前代更具体、更严厉,如在贪腐被处死刑方面,规定官吏贪赃枉法至</span>80<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">贯者,或监守自盗至</span>40<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">贯者,都要判处绞刑。以洪武年间宝钞</span>40<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">贯不到现在</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万元钱。贪污</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万元就会被判死刑,这是相当重的刑罚。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">采用酷刑。朱元璋对贪官采用诸如凌迟、枭首、墨面文身、挑筋、去膝盖、剁指、断手、刖足、阉割等</span>30<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">余种酷刑,不少酷刑是前代已被废弃不用的,如刖足、阉割等,还有一些酷刑是以前没有属于首创的,如断手、剁指、挑筋等。此外,还有一种说法是朱元璋实行过一种&#8220;剥皮实(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">囊</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)草&#8221;的酷刑,即剥下人皮,用草填充,做成标本,悬挂在官厅,以示对后任官员的警戒。此法残忍无比,朱元璋以后未再采用。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">大开杀戒,甚至牵连无辜。在洪武十八年(</span>1385<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)的&#8220;郭恒案&#8221;中,&#8220;自六部左、右侍郎以下皆处死&#8221;,从中央到地方,几万人死于非命,其中既有郭恒之类的贪官,也有一些无辜者。曾受朱元璋表彰的循吏(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">清官</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)&#8212;&#8212;曾任山东济宁知府的方克勤(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">方孝孺的父亲</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),就受洪武年间的另一大案&#8212;&#8212;&#8220;空印案&#8221;牵连致死。朱元璋搞的两个大案&#8212;&#8212;&#8220;空印案&#8221;和&#8220;郭恒案&#8221;,杀人据说达到</span>8<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万多人。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">朱元璋用&#8220;严刑重典&#8221;来反贪,其效果到底怎么样?历史上有肯定意见,如《明史》评论说,朱元璋的肃贪使得官吏&#8220;一时守令畏法&#8221;,&#8220;吏治焕然丕变矣&#8221;,其效果很好&#8212;&#8212;&#8220;吏治澄清者百余年&#8221;。不过,这种说法也让人怀疑,中国历代王朝,建国初期七八十年一般比较清明,贪腐不像中晚期那么严重,这是普遍现象,朱元璋时代腐败受到扼制固然无疑问,但朱元璋死后很多严刑酷法已废弃不用,&#8220;吏治澄清者百余年&#8221;即使为真,也未必就是朱元璋&#8220;严刑重典&#8221;的效果。另外,朱元璋自己都说:&#8220;我欲除贪赃官吏,奈何朝杀而暮犯!&#8221;这就说明,实际效果可能也有限。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">再者,&#8220;严刑重典&#8221;的可行性是很成疑问的。洪武二十八年(</span>1395<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),朱元璋特别下了一道手谕,说自己&#8220;特令法外加刑,意在使人知所警惧,不敢轻易犯法&#8221;,这种特定情况下的权宜办法,&#8220;顿挫奸顽&#8221;,但&#8220;非守成之君所用常法。以后嗣君统理天下,止守《律》与《大诰》,并不许用黥、刺、</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">剕</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">、劓、阉割之刑&#8221;。朱元璋去世后,孙子建文帝继位,曾谕刑官曰:&#8220;《大明律》,皇祖所亲定,命朕细阅,较前代往往加重。盖刑乱国之典非百世通行之道也。&#8221;朱元璋和建文帝的话,实际承认了&#8220;严刑重典&#8221;是不可持续的。即便是《大明律》,有些规定如贪腐被处死刑标准过低,实际上也是无法实施的。清承明制,《大清律例》继承了《大明律》的相关规定,对官吏&#8220;受财&#8221;即贪污</span>80<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">两银子就要判绞(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">监候</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)。在乾隆四十六年(</span>1781<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)案发的甘肃全省官员集体贪污案中,几乎全省官员都涉案,如果执行贪污</span>80<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">两就要判绞刑的标准,则可能全省官员要被杀光,乾隆无奈将判处死刑的标准提高到</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">万两,是</span>80<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">两的</span>250<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">倍,最后被处死的官员还有</span>56<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,包括总督、巡抚、布政使各</span>1<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,道员、知府</span>5<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,同知、知州</span>8<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,通判</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,知县</span>35<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,县丞</span>3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,这些都是县级以上官员。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">对于上述&#8220;高薪养廉&#8221;(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">厚禄</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)和&#8220;重典治贪&#8221;(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">严刑</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)反腐的实际效果,吴晗先生总结说:&#8220;宋代厚禄,明初严刑,暂时都有相当效果,却都不能维持久远。原因是这两个办法只能治标,对贪污的根本原因不能发生作用。&#8221;</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体;">监察、巡视制度效果有限</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">中国古代很早就有比较完善的监察制度。监察百官的机构,从秦汉到宋元叫御史台,官员称御史。隋唐时期,出现监察御史的职衔。到明代,朱元璋将御史台改名为都察院。都察院设左、右都御史(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">正二品</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),左、右副都御史(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">正三品</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),左、右佥都御史(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">正四品</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),以上为坐院官,有时并不全设。另有总督军务、漕运、粮储、巡抚地方等项事务官员,因事添设,无定员。为了监督地方官员,明代设十三道监察御史(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">清代为十五道</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),十三道是按省来划分的&#8212;&#8212;明代政区有两京(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">南京、北京</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)十三省(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">浙江、江西、湖广、陕西、广东、山东、福建、河南、山西、四川、广西、云南、贵州</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),每省</span>7<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">~</span>11<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">员,总共</span>110<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">员。十三道监察御史官秩不高(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">仅为正七品</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),但负有纠察之权,还被派遣分巡天下,即巡按御史。巡按御史是&#8220;代天子巡狩&#8221;,对巡按地方的官吏&#8220;大事奏裁,小事立断&#8221;,所以地方官员闻风丧胆。对御史也有监督,如果他们贪污受贿,比其他官吏罪加二等。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">为了监督吏、户、礼、兵、刑、工六部等中央官员,朱元璋又设六科,官员叫给事中。刚开始时各科给事中</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人,后来各科设都给事中</span>1<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人、左右给事中</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人、给事中</span>4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">~</span>10<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">人。六科给事中后来事实上拥有了纠察百官之权。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">这样,在理论上就形成了对中央、地方官员的严密的监察制度。各部和各省之内,上级官员对下级也负有监督之权。上下级监督,加科道官员的专门监察,理论上每个官员都处在监督之下,不留死角。应该说,这种官员监督制度的设计是相当完善的。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">现代以来,人们对古代监察制度的评价不一。有些人(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">如孙中山、钱穆等</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)认为,御史制度是运作良好的监察机制;另一些人(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">如著名历史学者何炳棣</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)却认为,御史制度所起监察职能有限,更经常的是沦为官僚政争的工具。在明代中后期,负责反腐的巡按御史,本身就贪赃腐败,已起不了反贪的作用。如御史陈志先按察江西,途中丢失</span>4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">件行李,为地方官查获,发现&#8220;其中皆金宝&#8221;,还有受贿簿,记载受贿&#8220;不下数万&#8221;。殷正茂以右佥都御史巡抚广西,&#8220;岁受属吏金万计&#8221;。沈汝梁巡视下江,&#8220;赃贿数万&#8221;。祝大舟巡按江西,&#8220;临行票取多赃&#8221;。</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注5</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">由此可见,御史的设想和设计虽不乏合理之处,然而实际运作的结果却不甚理想。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">如同前文所述,明清时代各个时期都很腐败,表面完善的监察、巡视制度,实际效果有限,并没有扼制住贪腐。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 21px; font-family: 宋体;">对任期制、回避制不能寄望过高</span></strong></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">中国古代起到预防腐败作用的制度设计还包括任期制和回避制。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">任期制要求一个官员不能在一个地方任职时间太长,比如明代规定各府州县的长官在某一地方的任期以</span>3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年为限,</span>3<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年后另调其他府州县。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">回避制则要求官员任职回避利害关系。回避制度在中国历史上是早已有之,到了清代发展得极其完备。明清时代的回避制,大致可分避籍、避亲、避职三类。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">避籍即回避原籍,或称地域回避,其规定主要有&#8220;避本省&#8221;和&#8220;避五百里&#8221;两个方面。&#8220;避本省&#8221;即不得在本人原籍所在省份当官;&#8220;避五百里&#8221;指如在原籍相邻省份为官,则其任所与其原籍必须远隔五百里以上。五百里如何计算估计是个难题,乾隆九年(</span>1744<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)的细则规定,五百里指&#8220;任所与原籍乡僻小路&#8221;相距五百里。明清时代的官员选任,为了回避地区,还实行南北更调用人之法,籍贯北平、山西、陕西、河南、四川的人,须到浙江、江西、湖广(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">湖南、湖北</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)、直隶任职,相反亦然;籍贯广西、广东、福建的人,须到山东、山西、陕西、河南、四川任职,相反亦然。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">避亲,指有血亲、姻亲关系者不得在同一地区或同一系统任职,有师生等社会关系者类同,若出现此类情况,要按照小官避大官的原则,调小官到其他机构任职。在监察制度中,规定大臣子弟亲属不得任监察官,出现这种情况时应&#8220;对品改调&#8221;。在科举考试中,还特别规定考官&#8220;有宗族子弟及翁婿入试者,皆应回避&#8221;。在司法方面规定:&#8220;凡官吏于讼诉人内,关有服亲及婚姻之家,若得受业之师及旧有仇嫌之人,并听移文回避。&#8221;</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">避职即职务回避,比如军机处是机枢要地,为了避免暗通机密,曾规定道台以上官员子弟都得回避,不得任军机章京等职。又如户部下辖十四司,分管各省钱粮等事务,那么官员就不得出任涉及本省事务的那个司的职务,&#8220;籍隶山东者回避山东司,籍隶河南者回避河南司&#8221;。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">清代对任职回避的规定非常严密,执行也非常严格。乾隆年间,一个叫张廷泰的人获任浙江绍兴府通判,乾隆皇帝接见时发现其口音像是绍兴话,询问之后,得知其年幼时曾随父在绍兴居住过数年,因而话中带上了绍兴的口音。乾隆认为,&#8220;通判虽系闲曹,但以本籍人居官其地,于体制究为未合&#8221;,吩咐将张廷泰交给福建巡抚,在福建省内找个通判位置给他。从这个事例中看出,虽然通判是不重要的&#8220;闲曹&#8221;(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">闲散小官</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),而且张廷泰又只是小时候在绍兴生活过,但乾隆还是要求严格执行任职回避的制度。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">任期制和回避制有利于避免利益输送及形成贪腐集团,是合理的制度设计,其在实施过程中,的确也起到了一定的扼制腐败作用。不过,这种作用有限,尤其是在当代人与人之间的交流成本大大降低之后,更是如此,不能对之寄望过高。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">反腐倡廉教育起不了多大作用</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">中国古代在反腐实践中,除了反腐制度设计之外,也有对官员进行反腐倡廉教育以扼制腐败的经验。比如朱元璋的反腐策略中就包含这方面的内容。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">朱元璋曾颁布反腐倡廉材料,试图从正反两方面影响官员心理。正面的,试图唤起官员良心。比如,洪武二十五年(</span>1392<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)八月他颁布了一份反腐材料,名为《醒贪简要录》,教材里面详细地计算官员所得的俸米如果折合成稻谷是多少、按照平均亩产折算需要多少亩地、农民耕种这些地需要花费多少劳力等等,希望以此来唤醒官吏们的良心。《醒贪简要录》里记载了正一品官员俸禄的算法。正一品官员的俸禄是每月支米</span>87<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">石,一年</span>1044<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">石。折算成稻谷,需要</span>2620<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">石(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">稻谷碾成大米有较大损耗,从其数字看,出米率只有40%</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)。要生产</span>2620<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">石的稻谷,需要用田</span>873<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">亩(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">每亩产谷3石,在明代产量不低</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)。种田需要耕牛,按一头牛耕地</span>50<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">亩计算,需用牛</span>17<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">头。田间劳作方面的人力花费,按一个人种田</span>15<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">亩计算,需要</span>57<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">个人耕种。收割之后,农夫挑一担(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">未脱粒的</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)稻禾只能出</span>4<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">斗稻谷,所以需要</span>6550<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">挑。如果从田里把稻禾挑到打谷场是</span>1<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">里路,再回去挑也要走</span>1<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">里路,来回就是</span>2<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">里,这样算下来为了挑担就得走</span>13100<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">里。因此,正一品官员俸禄每月</span>87<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">石米,看起来似乎不多,但为了这份俸禄老百姓却不知要花费多少劳力和辛苦。&#8220;如此筋骨劳苦,方得许多粮米&#8221;,朱元璋反问:&#8220;你们这些当官的拿着朝廷的优厚俸禄还不满足,不肯为老百姓造福,一味贪污腐败,破坏朝廷法度,那么到时候被杀头抄家,还能怨别人吗?&#8221;反腐教材的算法让人触目惊心,但是似乎也没起到多少效果。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">反面的,是朱元璋告诫乃至威吓官员们,他是&#8220;先教后诛&#8221;,不是&#8220;不教而诛&#8221;,被诛者将受惨酷之刑罚。朱元璋整理、发布贪腐大案材料,警示、告诫官吏们贪腐后果严重,这就是《大诰》(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">包括续编、三编,及针对武官的《大诰武臣》,共四编,236条,其中有几十个案例专门针对贪官</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)。《大诰》里面辑录大量惩治贪污受贿的条例,配以大案要案实例,展示那些族诛、凌迟、枭首、挑筋、剁指等严酷刑罚,以此告诫官吏不要贪腐,并要求全国各地广泛宣传,力图以此塑造舆论高压态势,压制官员贪腐念头。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">朱元璋在反腐倡廉上实行的正、反两方面的教育,应该说一时会有一定作用,但高压态势不可持续,官员也有另外不得不贪的理由,对官员廉洁的心理塑造恐怕也难有长效。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><strong style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 21px; font-family: 宋体;">中国古代反贪失败的启示</span></strong></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">纵观中国古代反腐思想和制度设计,可谓穷尽古人的智慧,各项设计都很合理。现代西方经济学家认为,扼制贪腐,需从贪腐的动机、机会、收益及风险等方面综合设计。古代反贪设计,厚禄(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">高薪</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)意图减少腐败的动机,回避减少腐败的机会,监察、巡视及严刑都提高了腐败的风险,因此,它们都是合理的设计。按照这些设计,按理应该能够扼制腐败,但实际效果却不理想,历代王朝反贪最终都以失败告终,王朝也因官吏贪腐虐民而被更替,其中原因,恐怕是因厚禄、严刑、监察、回避等等设计,都是治标之术,并非治本之法。治本之法何在?一例可以明之。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">清代的税关,是最腐败的政务领域之一。以粤海关为例,其在鸦片战争之前,因为官吏处处刁难和贪腐而与外国来华商人不断发生冲突,一位</span>1787<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年到过广东的法国人说:&#8220;人们在欧洲喝的每一杯茶无不渗透着在广东购茶的商人蒙受的耻辱&#8230;&#8230;&#8221;</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注6</span>1830<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年</span>12<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">月</span>24<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">日英国商人递交下议院的请愿书中说:&#8220;从一艘外国船到达时起,它的业务就受到海关低级官吏们为了勒索非法征课而起的借故留难&#8221;。</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 10px; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注7</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">作为鸦片战争的结果,中国人被迫签署了割地赔款、丧权辱国的《南京条约》,但大多数国人所不知道的是,《南京条约》的第十条,是抵制税关官吏不按规定征税的腐败行为的。尽管有《南京条约》的明确规定,后来还是处处存在刁难和勒索,外国人忍受不了,最终清政府同意聘请外国人来管理对外贸易事务,这就是说,海关官吏的贪腐行为,是导致近代中国海关自主权丧失的重要原因,腐败对国家的危害,于此可见一斑。海关聘请外国人管理之后,税关就出现了&#8220;一国两制&#8221;:&#8220;洋关&#8221;(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">或称&#8220;新关&#8221;</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)管理国际贸易,由赫德(</span>RobertHart<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">,</span>1835<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">&#8212;</span>1911<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)等洋人主持;&#8220;常关&#8221;(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">或称&#8220;旧关&#8221;</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">)管理国内贸易,仍由清政府官员管理。两种体制产生两种绩效:&#8220;洋关&#8221;高效廉洁,&#8220;常关&#8221;照旧贪腐蔓延。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">英国人赫德从</span>1861<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年到</span>1908<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年任海关总税务司,掌握中国海关实际管理权近半个世纪。在赫德的领导下,晚清中国海关被认为是&#8220;世界行政管理史上的奇迹之一&#8221;。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">&#8220;洋关&#8221;的工作人员是全世界招聘的,其中的洋人称为&#8220;洋员&#8221;,中国人则称&#8220;华员&#8221;。在&#8220;洋关&#8221;之内,无论是&#8220;洋员&#8221;还是&#8220;华员&#8221;,都能廉洁自守。同是中国人,在&#8220;洋关&#8221;工作能廉洁自守,而在&#8220;常关&#8221;工作则个个腐败。同在中国的土地上,&#8220;洋关&#8221;廉洁而&#8220;常关&#8221;腐败,中国人在&#8220;洋关&#8221;工作能廉洁而在&#8220;常关&#8221;工作则贪污腐败,这个事实说明了一个道理:腐败在中国是可以治理的,腐败也不是因为中国人的素质差所致。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">对比&#8220;洋关&#8221;和&#8220;常关&#8221;的治理经验,我们可以获得反贪的基本经验:</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">第一,反腐制度建设并非难事。赫德治理&#8220;洋关&#8221;,主要是借鉴英国经验,引进英国制度。当时的英国,高效廉洁的文官制度已经建立,而海关管理方面,英国更有完善的经验可资借鉴。制定一套廉洁高效的&#8220;洋关&#8221;管理制度对英国人赫德来说并不是难事。推而广之,在其他政务领域,要建立反腐制度也非难事,全世界有很多行之有效的反腐制度可供学习、采用。当时的&#8220;常关&#8221;不仅可以借鉴其他国家的好的制度,简单地也可以就把&#8220;洋关&#8221;的制度搬过来,但是&#8220;常关&#8221;什么都没做。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">第二,反腐制度制定之后,关键看执行。执行的核心问题是选人、用人。好的选人、用人制度,不外遵循现代企业人事管理的一些基本原则&#8212;&#8212;如因事设岗、以事择人,选人严格、公开公正,严格管理、奖惩分明,如此等等。以人员选拔来说,赫德在选择海关雇员时全球招考,公开选拔。当时在国内的招考点,即有上海、九龙、广州、大连、青岛等处,此后伦敦也设置考点。招考是公开的,但要做到公正,关键的问题是赫德本人及海关高层管理人员不能任用私人。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">赫德本人坚持原则不任用私人,这固然有利于海关用人的公正,但要使这种公正真正得到贯彻,还必须有杜绝干扰的能力,这需要享有不受任何掣肘的独立用人权才能实现,而赫德恰好争取到了这个权力。</span>1864<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">年</span>8<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">月总理衙门颁布的《通商各口募用外国人帮办税务章程》规定:&#8220;各关所有外国人帮办税务事宜,均由总税务司募请调派,其薪水如何增减,其调往各口以及应行撤退,均由总税务司作主&#8221;。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">与赫德在&#8220;洋关&#8221;的用人制度相对应,&#8220;常关&#8221;的用人,是皇帝派亲信出任重要税关的监督,这些亲信多为内务府包衣,他们又带领自己的亲随、仆从,整个&#8220;常关&#8221;,把持关务的就是这样一些人,完全违背公开、公正的用人原则。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">第三,监督制度。众所周知,监督制度的核心是对&#8220;一把手&#8221;的监督。&#8220;洋关&#8221;要廉洁,首先&#8220;一把手&#8221;赫德得不腐败,而赫德本人的腐败不能完全寄望于赫德的道德品质,而必须有监督使赫德本人也不能贪。对于赫德来说,他必须面对来自多方面的监督。赫德是中国政府的国际雇员(</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 仿宋_GB2312;">时称&#8220;洋客卿&#8221;</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">),其地位非常微妙,他必须面对三个方面的压力:一是来自中国政府的压力。中国政府是有选择自己的雇员的权力的,如果赫德的工作不能让中国政府满意,那么他的职位马上会丢掉,所以赫德必须做中国政府的忠诚雇员,贪污腐败的丑闻是绝对不能出现的。二是来自许多觊觎这一职位的其他国家的竞争对手的压力。因为许多国家都想通过控制这个职位来操控中国,巩固在华利益,特别是德国人,对这个职位一直虎视眈眈,所以赫德必须面对外在压力,不能因廉洁问题给人可乘之机。三是来自英国政府的压力。赫德在中国的行为不是简单的个人行为,而在一定程度上代表英国政府的利益,所以他不能因自己的失误而损害英国政府的利益,更不能使自己丑闻缠身,给英国政府丢脸。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">在这三个方面的压力之外,还有来自全社会的监督,包括新闻媒体&#8212;&#8212;这个媒体还是全世界的,不仅有中国的民间媒体,还有英国和其他国家的,特别是那些想争夺这个职位的国家的媒体,他们想必都巴不得赫德出点事情,好让他们把事情放大,将赫德赶下台。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">因此,赫德作为中国政府的国际雇员,必须面对来自各方面的压力和监督,他不像大清帝国的其他官员,压力和监督只是来自自己的上级。与之相对应,&#8220;常关&#8221;基本上处于无法监督的境地。&#8220;常关&#8221;的人,多出自内务府,内务府是皇帝的家事,外官不能置喙,否则祸不可测。因此,能够监督&#8220;常关&#8221;的,只有皇帝本人。清代中期以后,皇帝选派&#8220;常关&#8221;负责人,有多重政治含义:一是通过&#8220;常关&#8221;给内务府财政输血,干一些皇帝喜好而不能通过国家财政支出的事,如皇帝喜好西洋物品,而且量很大,按市场价购买,内务府财政承受不了,所以粤海关监督的一个责任就是通过贪腐来完成上述任务。二是,皇帝任命内务府奴才出任东南沿海各地的税关监督,含有让他们监视汉族官员的秘密使命。三是,皇帝把税关监督这样的职位作为肥缺,赏赐给内务府包衣,本来就带有允许他们贪腐的含义。基于上述原因,对&#8220;常关&#8221;官吏基本上无监督,其腐败势所必然。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">比较&#8220;洋关&#8221;和&#8220;常关&#8221;的治理体系,我们不难明白反腐制度设计和真正发挥效力的原因所在。中国古代尽管创造了很多合理的反腐制度,但都属于技术问题,未触及根本。根本,在于皇权专制的政治制度,以及把政治作为私家政治而不是公共政治的心态和做法。为了维护皇权专制,在任用官员时就必然任用私人,不可能真正做到选人用人上的公开公正;为了维护私利,也必然不可能采用一切财政收支阳光化的措施,让私家财政变成公共财政。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: 35px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">腐败的根本原因是权力不受有效监督,这是一个基本常识。中国传统政治智慧尽管在许多方面表现出极尽巧思之境界,但唯独缺乏对有效监督权力的深入思考。西方思想家,从亚里士多德、洛克到孟德斯鸠,将国家权力逐渐抽象为三种权力:立法权、行政权、司法权。监督权力的有效办法,是让这三种权力分开,由不同的人掌握,避免一个人或一个小集团把这三种国家权力都抓在手中。而中国的皇帝集这三种权力于一身,古代思想家却没有认识到腐败的根源乃在于此,因此也就没有相应的思想和制度设计的构想。因此,在反腐问题上,中国传统政治智慧固有可供借鉴之处,但更应借鉴的是现代政治文明的智慧,特别是权力制衡等现代政治文明成果。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体;">注释:</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注1</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> 吴晗:《论贪污》,《吴晗史学论著选集》第二卷,人民出版社1986年版,第482页。以下吴晗论述均来自此文。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注2</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> 详见王春瑜主编:《中国反贪史》,宋代部分,人民出版社2013年版,中册第1~167页。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注3</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> 见王春瑜主编:《中国反贪史》,人民出版社2013年版,中册第394~396页。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注4</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> 转引自王春瑜主编:《中国反贪史》,人民出版社2013年版,中册第105页。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注5</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> 转引自虞云国:《晚明的贪腐&#8212;&#8212;体制性的不治之症》,见《东方早报&#183;上海书评》2013年5月5日。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注6</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> 《依靠等高仪和指南针环球旅行》,1785&#8212;1787,1797年版,转见〔法〕阿兰&#183;佩雷菲特:《中国的保护主义对应英国的自由贸易》,载张芝联主编的《中英通使二百周年学术讨论会论文集》,中国社会科学出版社1996年版,第34页及第43页注2。</span></p><p style="padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; clear: both; min-height: 1em; color: #3e3e3e; font-family: -apple-system-font, &quot;Helvetica Neue&quot;, &quot;PingFang SC&quot;, &quot;Hiragino Sans GB&quot;, &quot;Microsoft YaHei&quot;, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 黑体; letter-spacing: -1px;">注7</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;"> [英]莱特著、姚曾</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 宋体;">廙</span><span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-family: 楷体_GB2312;">译《中国关税沿革史》,北京三联书店1958年版,第4页。</span></p>