为什么人们厌恶帝制？ – 纵览中国-China In Perspective

<div id="img-content" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; font-family: -apple-system-font, "Helvetica Neue", "PingFang SC", "Hiragino Sans GB", "Microsoft YaHei", sans-serif; font-size: 16px; background-color: #ffffff;"><h2> </h2><div id="js_content" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; overflow: hidden; color: #3e3e3e; font-size: 18px; position: relative;"><section data-role="outer" label="Powered by 135editor.com" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; font-size: 16px;"><section style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px 10px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important;"><section data-role="paragraph" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><section data-tools="135编辑器" data-id="89175" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><section style="margin: 10px auto; padding: 3px 0px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 2px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576;"><section style="margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: #757576; font-weight: bold; font-size: 18px;">大灾难的形成机制</section></section></section> 与那些“封建”文明形成鲜明对比的是：秦以后中国历史的明显特征就是它的大盛大衰。承平之时，“秦制”不像“封建”那样领主林立多内耗，因而可以多次取得“大国崛起”的成就。英国经济学家安格斯·麦迪森说“鸦片战争前中国GDP占世界的三分之一”，今天流传甚广，我以为难以置信。但至少在明初以前，即马可·波罗和郑和的时代，中国的王朝盛世要比当时的欧洲繁荣许多，则应该是不争的事实。然而我们历史的一大特点是始终无法摆脱“治乱循环”，即所谓“其兴也勃焉，其亡也忽焉”。而且中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比“封建”时代的周“王朝”和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其“改朝换代”的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。 古代没有精确统计，惟一能反映国家兴亡、社会荣衰的指标就是人口的增减，而历史上中国人口的大起大落，可以说是任何别的民族都没有的。固然，人口（在农业时代基本也就是经济）的升降并非传统中国独有。罗马帝国极盛时人口据说达到一亿，帝国崩溃后原领土上的居民估计还有七千多万。在整个中世纪“封建”时代，欧洲的经济社会发展也是有起有伏、时进时退。 但衰退的主要原因是瘟疫与气候，而不是政治与战争。六七世纪之交与14世纪的两次黑死病大流行，都造成严重的人口下降，涉及的人口少则有说减少四分之一，多则说减了三分之一，并由于生产破坏引发了社会失序和动乱。但这两次大衰退与“改朝换代”和政治变故并没有什么关系：那里的“盛世”并无秦皇汉武，“末世”亦无汉献唐昭。黑死病之灾后，又有以三十年战争为谷底的16－17世纪危机，据说使战争波及地区的人口损失三分之一。根据如今学者的研究，这次危机是“小冰河期”宏观气候异常导致的。 而所有这几次“封建”欧洲史上的大难，都与“改朝换代”无关。近几十年，欧洲中世纪史学界关于中世纪危机原因的争论主要发生在强调“人口周期率”的“必然论”观点和强调瘟疫与气候灾变的“偶然”论观点之间。前者受马尔萨斯人口论的启发，认为危机的根源是周期性的人口过剩，瘟疫只是过剩严重后人口下降必然性的一种表现形式。 而后者则认为黑死病的流行是“外源”的，它与气候变迁一样，属于偶然性灾变，与欧洲社会上的人口“过剩”与否没有什么关系，正如后来的工业革命在一些人看来就是因为煤和铁恰巧同时富集于英格兰一样。 <section data-tools="135编辑器" data-id="89175" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><section style="margin: 10px auto; padding: 3px 0px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 2px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576;"><section style="margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: #757576; font-weight: bold; font-size: 18px;">中国王朝更替爆发战乱导致人口损失一览</section></section></section> 如果说必然性的“人口规律”与偶然性的气候、瘟疫灾变对西方中世纪的盛衰确实有某种作用，那么在中国它们也有同样作用吗？就像过去说中国古代和西方中世纪都是“封建社会”因而有同样的“规律”那样？ 这显然是可疑的。首先，像“小冰河期”这样的气候灾变，都是全球性的，但是西方中世纪的盛衰与中国传统时代的治乱明显不同步。西方于六七世纪之交发生第一次鼠疫大灾难时，中国却出现“贞观之治”；14－15世纪发生更大的黑死病之灾时，中国却又出现永乐、宣德“盛世”。而中国两汉之际大乱时，西方却正值繁荣的“罗马和平”时期。全球性的小冰河期怎么解释这些相反的事实？ 其次，如果说到“人口周期率”，那么中国与西方的不同步就更明显。西方的人口下降主要表现为瘟疫，次数比中国少，下降的幅度也没有中国大，更重要的是，中国的人口下降通常都表现为残酷的战乱，与政治上的“改朝换代”高度重叠。如果说西方的瘟疫不管“偶然”“必然”，表面上总还是一种自然现象，那么中国历史上的人口下降就直接表现为“人祸”了。 当然，从另一方面讲，“人祸”之前中国也有胜于西方的“人福”。正像老子所言的“祸福相倚”，对比极为鲜明。中国人口繁荣时期增长比欧洲快，而崩溃时期的剧减更是骇人听闻。相比前述西方人口下降三分之一的灾难程度，中国不仅灾难频率更高，每次灾难的程度，如果我们相信史书的说法，也要高出一倍以上。 西汉末年人口将近6000万，王莽时期发生大乱，几十年间就使人口损耗三分之二，东汉光武帝恢复天下太平时，人口只剩下2100万。 东汉经过一百多年的发展，到桓帝时人口又恢复到5648万，但马上又发生了更严重的黄巾之乱与军阀战争，就像曹操诗中讲的“白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣”，很多地方变成了无人区，重归一统时，魏、蜀、吴三国人口加起来只有760万，可以说消灭了七分之六。西晋维持统一三十几年，末年人口1600万，只有西汉盛期的四分之一。 紧接着又大乱几百年，一直到隋朝，隋文帝时代，中国出现了一个小小的盛世，人口发展到四千六百多万，接着又发生了隋末大乱，也是毁灭性的，到唐高祖统一的时候，第一个人口统计是200万户，按中国传统的五口之家，当时的人口有1000万左右，只剩下五分之一。 经过唐代前期、中期一百多年的发展，在安史之乱的前一年，即755年，唐代人口达到最高峰，有5291万，仍比西汉平帝时要少。第二年“渔阳鼙鼓动地来”，又陷入了百年大乱，到了唐代宗时期，中国的人口又剧减70％，降为1692万。 历经晚唐藩镇，五代十国之乱，到了宋太祖统一的时候，剩下309万户、1500多万人的样子。 宋代人口发展比较快，经济比较繁荣。南北宋之交的战乱对人口的影响也相对小些，到1190年，宋金对峙的双方人口合计达到7633万，第一次超过西汉末年，再创高峰。 元灭宋金，人口再降，例如四川便从南宋的259万户剧减到元初的20万户。元朝的太平只维持了八十几年，元末大乱又使中国人口受到严重打击。 明代的人口记录很怪，在明太祖统治的31年内，人口增长出奇地快，到朱元璋临死时据说已经达到5987万，以后一直没有超过这个数字。到了明末农民战争爆发前，人口大概是5200万左右，经过农民战争与明清战争又一场浩劫，清初恢复统一后，统计数字剩下1900多万。 清前期的100年，包括康雍乾盛世，人口增长很缓慢，乾隆中叶以后，人口增长突然加速，这是中国人口史上的第三个谜，在100年间中国人口先后超过1亿、2亿、3亿，到咸丰元年达到4.3216亿，形成中国人口史上的又一个高峰，很快又陷入大乱，太平天国战争加上回捻之乱，1863年即太平天国灭亡的前一年，中国人口的数字已经掉到2.3亿。以后一直到1949年中国人口数字一直都在咸丰元年的水平徘徊。 <section data-role="paragraph" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"> </section><section data-tools="135编辑器" data-id="89175" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><section style="margin: 10px auto; padding: 3px 0px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 2px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576;"><section style="margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: #757576; font-weight: bold; font-size: 18px;">周期性浩劫与“乱世增长”</section></section></section> 当然，上述都是史书上的官方数字，其中宋代的户、口比例，明代洪武后的“人口停滞”，和清前期的“人口爆炸”这三大谜都存在着严重的统计争议。一些研究认为实际情况没那么骇人。其中，复旦大学葛剑雄教授挂帅的集体项目六大卷《中国人口史》可以说是对历史上历次大乱的灾难程度估计最为缓和的了。该书综合了前人成果和自己的潜心研究，各卷作者都是各断代人口史的顶级专家，反映了该领域研究的当代水准，尤其对以上三个“人口之谜”的真相作了具有说服力的澄清。 根据该书各卷的研究，西汉末年与新莽大乱中，人口从6000万降至3500万；东汉末年大乱，人口再从6000万降至2300万；隋唐之际大乱，人口从6000万降至2500万；安史之乱后以讫五代，战祸连绵，人口从7000万降至北宋初年的3540万；宋元之际大乱，中国（指宋辽金夏之地总计）人口从1.45亿降至7500万；元明之际，从9000万降至7160万；明末大乱，人口从近2亿降至1.5亿，清初顺治至康熙初的战争损失还有约2000万。 以太平天国战争为中心的清末咸、同大乱，人口由4.36亿降至3.64亿。而辛亥革命后的整个民国时期，尽管实际上也是“秦失其鹿，楚汉逐之”，战祸不断，属于两个稳定“朝代”之间“改朝换代”的乱世，人口却破天荒地出现“乱世增长”，从1910年的4.36亿增至1949年的5.417亿。 因此根据该团队的研究，历史上中国人口的大起大落现象，大约可以分为三个大阶段：第一阶段是元以前，每次“改朝换代”人口通常都要减少一半以上，甚至60%以上。第二阶段是元以后至清末，每次大乱人口减少四分之一到五分之一。但是正如《中国人口史》作者所说，这种变化其实主要是因为元以后中国人口基数大了，分布广了，而且出现了多个人口稠密中心，大乱不可能席卷所有这些地方。但在大乱涉及的地方，人口损失的比例与元以前相比，骇人听闻的程度并不稍逊。而整个大乱造成的人口减少绝对数甚至远比前一阶段更大。第三阶段就是辛亥革命以后，民国时期人口的“乱世增长”是此前历史上从未有过的现象，其意义我们以后再说。 显然，辛亥革命前两千多年帝制时代中国人口的大起大落，即使不像史书户籍数字所显示的那样极端，也是够触目惊心的。世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。民国时期外敌（日本人）制造的南京大屠杀，死难者30万，是近代以来中国人永不能忘的惨痛记忆。可是两千年前，在短短几十年内，秦一次坑杀赵降卒40万于长平，楚一次坑杀秦降卒二十余万于新安，而当时整个中国人口也不过才两千多万！ 可笑的是，西方人往往夜郎自大，我在美国看到好几本书说美国南北战争是人类迄那时为止最残酷的内战。真是少见多怪了。国人自相残杀的残忍让人听来真是毛骨悚然。太平天国战争，虽然全国人口减少的比率没有元以前那么高，可是战争波及的那些地区，人口减少之惊人绝不逊于前代。按地方志记载，在太平天国战争中成为战场的江浙一带，人口耗减都达到一半以上，像苏州一府（注意是全府各县，不是仅苏州城）耗减了三分之二，常州、杭州等府竟各耗减了五分之四，屠城、屠乡的记载比比皆是！ <section data-tools="135编辑器" data-id="89175" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><section style="margin: 10px auto; padding: 3px 0px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 2px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576;"><section style="margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: #757576; font-weight: bold; font-size: 18px;">如此仇恨为哪般？</section></section></section> 辛亥时期的革命党人为了反满大力渲染“扬州十日”、“嘉定三屠”，其实汉族的内战中更为血腥的事也不乏其例。仅就明清之际的“张献忠屠蜀”而言，按明末统计，四川有人口385万，到清初顺治十八年全川平定后统计，只剩下一万八千丁！丁是纳税单位，加上妇孺，加上未录人口，充其量也不超过10万人吧。从385万到10万，要说是人口灭绝，一点都不假。现在的四川人，大都是清初以后移进去的。 我当年治明清之际史，喜欢看地方志，康熙初年出现入清以来第一轮修志高潮，四川各地多有援例而为的。那都是一批怎样的志书啊！乱后之作，纸差印劣，篇幅单薄，不少注明是县官或同仁私人凑钱印的，因传世极少，如今多属善本。 而其中内容，赋役志则多有一县仅数十丁者，有县官和移民来到无人之地，林莽丘墟，虎多人少，初来移民数十户一年为虎所食近半者。而其《艺文志》则多为虎口余生孑然幸存者的恐怖纪实，令人不忍卒读。 清初十余年间，各方或有官吏，亦皆不居城而与遗民在山中结寨自保。当时清朝的四川巡抚驻川北边远的保宁（今阆中县），明朝（南明）的巡抚则驻川南彝区边缘的洪雅县一处叫做天生城的山寨，南北双方你攻我伐，多次路过成都及川中天府，但都不驻守，因为那时的成都已是一片虎狼出没的灌木丛，邻近府县皆无人区，驻军则无处觅食。直到顺治末年，清朝的巡抚才回到废墟成都重新设置。 过去传统文人把“屠蜀”归罪于“流寇”，说是张献忠把四川人杀光了。上世纪五六十年代从意识形态出发，为了维护张献忠这个“农民领袖”，很多人写文章论证“不是张献忠屠蜀，而是统治阶级屠蜀”。改革后有人就说，其实两说皆是，明末清初的四川，各方各派都在疯狂杀人。 清代文人记载说，张献忠为证明他杀人有理，在全川各地立了许多“圣谕碑”，就是张的语录碑，文曰：“天有万物与人，人无一物与天，杀杀杀杀杀杀杀！”所以又被称为“七杀碑”。到底有没有“七杀碑”？ 经过1950年代以来的研究，的确发现了几块传说中的“大西皇帝圣谕碑”，如今四川广汉市的公园里还竖着一块。只是碑文与清人的说法有点出入，文曰：“天有万物与人，人无一物与天，鬼神明明，自思自量！”后面不是七个杀字，但正如当代著名南明史家顾诚先生评论的：此碑杀气之明显，也是可以一眼看出的。碑文的意思是：老天爷对（四川）人百般照顾，可是（四川）人逆天欺天，所以该杀。刀下鬼们，你们自己思量思量是不是活该吧！显然张献忠杀人如麻是无可置疑的。 但是老实说，川人的确不是他张献忠一家可以杀光的。尤其是，张献忠发狂地进行灭绝性屠杀，是在他败象已露、绝望挣扎的顺治三年，那时他早已不能控制全川。以重庆为中心的川东，被明将曾英控制，以嘉定（今乐山）为中心的川南，则是明将杨展的地盘。 张献忠的屠刀所及，只有成都附近的川西平原和川中一带。所以改革前搜集的那些官军屠戮、贼梳兵篦之史料倒也不假。事实上，那时四川何止“官军”与“流寇”，一般的人们在弱肉强食的丛林状态下，为了自利甚至仅仅为了苟存，也是人相戮，乃至人相食，几乎已如那句老话说的，“人对于人是狼”了。 <img data-src="http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/miaQx30NtrCZbjXBXBdDAgOdw6mxQSfowS1O9SiaLIdMte3FbRZM2VicA2bNquD8fqGNWf8Gia2jhotCPpGAaMicsicw/?wx_fmt=jpeg" data-ratio="0.6088193456614509" data-w="703" data-type="jpeg" src="data:image/gif;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAEAAAABCAYAAAAfFcSJAAAADUlEQVQImWNgYGBgAAAABQABh6FO1AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; background-color: #eeedeb; border: 1px solid #eeedeb; background-size: 22px; background-image: 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box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; width: 650px !important; background-position: center center; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat;" alt="" /> 如今国际上对“中国”或“中国人”往往有两种极端的看法：或者说中国人在“传统”上是和平的民族，或者极力宣扬“中国威胁论”，其实抽象地谈论“中国”和“中国人”是很少有意义的。中国人也是人，既不是天使也不是魔鬼，他们和全球其他民族一样，既有人性之光，也有人性的阴暗。当权力不受制约时，在社会冲突爆炸之际，人性之恶便会导致种种残暴不仁之事。对本族人是如此，对其他民族，又何尝例外！中国古代的专制者与别国的暴君一样搞过领土扩张，搞过种族屠杀乃至种族灭绝。远的不说，一度曾是新疆最大民族的蒙古准噶尔人就几乎被清朝军队杀绝。被称为“进步思想家”的汉族著名学者魏源记载说： 初，准部有宰桑六十二，新旧鄂拓二十四，昂吉二十一，集赛九，共计二十余万户，六十余万口。……致我朝之赫怒，帝怒于上，将帅怒于下。合围掩群，顿天网而大狝之，穷奇浑沌、梼杌饕餮之群，天无所诉，地无所容，自作自受，必使无遗育逸种而后已。计数十万户中，除妇孺充赏外，至今惟来降受屯之厄鲁特若干户，此外数千里间无瓦剌一毡帐。 漏网之厄鲁特各贼众聚分四支，每支各一二千，……（清军）分两路围猎，所至狝剃，搜山网谷，栉比擒馘，无孑遗焉。 甚至连亲清的准噶尔沙克都汗“不从各酋之叛，率所部四千人”投诚清朝，竟然也被清军将领“袭坑之”，全部活埋了。 与颇为得意于“我朝之赫怒”的魏源不同，清末维新志士谭嗣同则痛斥“本朝”对准噶尔人的灭绝： 《扬州十日记》、《嘉定屠城纪略》不过略举一二事。……即彼准部，方数千里，一大种族也，遂无复乾隆以前之旧籍，其残暴为何如矣。 他甚至愤而说出了这样的话： <section data-tools="135编辑器" data-id="86005" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><p style="margin-bottom: 16px; padding: 16px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: normal; clear: both; min-height: 1em; overflow: auto; font-size: 15px; border-top-left-radius: 3px; border-top-right-radius: 3px; border-bottom-right-radius: 3px; border-bottom-left-radius: 3px; color: #333333; background-color: #f7f7f7; line-height: 1.75em; letter-spacing: 1px;">幸而中国之兵不强也，向使海军如英法，陆军如俄德，恃以逞其残贼，岂直君主之祸愈不可思议，而彼白人焉，红人焉，黑人焉，棕色人焉，将为准噶尔，欲尚存噍类焉得乎？！故东西各国之压制中国，天实使之。所以曲用其仁爱，至于极致也。中国不知感，乃欲以挟忿寻仇为务。</section> 这话今天听来，怕要被指为汉奸。幸亏人人皆知谭嗣同是为救国变法而死的烈士！ 这当然是过激之言。实际上专制权力如果不受制约，“欲尚存噍类焉得乎”的，首先是中国人自己。即使国力孱弱谈不上扩张，专制暴政下的汉族与其他民族照样有遭屠杀乃至灭绝的可能。前者如前述明清之际的“蜀难”，后者如魏晋南北朝时期汉族冉魏政权对羯族男女老幼的全族屠灭，这次大屠杀不仅使时称“五胡”之一并建立过后赵王朝的羯族从此绝迹，大量汉人也仅仅因为长相“高鼻多须”疑似羯人而横遭“滥死”。 <img data-src="http://mmbiz.qpic.cn/mmbiz_jpg/miaQx30NtrCZbjXBXBdDAgOdw6mxQSfowia3OicPhoxhxewuegencfe0GFygTQHsrrgA4ZsWhoia5IWAv7c6cw9X8A/?wx_fmt=jpeg" data-ratio="1.5113350125944585" data-w="397" data-type="jpeg" _width="35%" 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box-sizing: border-box !important; word-wrap: break-word !important; width: 227.5px !important; background-position: center center; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat;" alt="" /> <section data-tools="135编辑器" data-id="89175" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border: 0px none;"><section style="margin: 10px auto; padding: 3px 0px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 2px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576;"><section style="margin: 0px; padding: 5px 0px; max-width: 100%; box-sizing: border-box; word-wrap: break-word !important; border-top-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-top-color: #757576; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: #757576; font-weight: bold; font-size: 18px;">重审历史上的“制度”问题</section></section></section> 过去很长时间，我们习惯于以“租佃关系决定论”、“土地兼并危机论”和“农民—地主斗争论”来解释历史上的这种周期性的浩劫。笔者曾对此提出质疑。传统中国社会危机的根源，不在于“土地私有制”导致的矛盾。世界上土地私有的国家何其多多，但哪个像传统中国那样周期性地发生天翻地覆、乾坤扭转的“农民战争”？ 近年来我发现这样看的人越来越多，已不是什么新奇的认识。如中国社科院近代史所集体的大项目多卷本《中国近代通史》对清代就是这样看的。该书认为：在整个清代“土地兼并”与土地分散是两个互相平衡的过程，因为富人的大家庭不断分家造成家产分散，而赤贫者多无力成家延续后嗣，其家庭趋势是归于消灭，只有中等人家有按原规模延续的最大几率。因此乡村人口的阶级结构是长期稳定的，“地主阶级手中的土地越来越多”的趋势并不存在。 具体地说，清初尽管“土旷人稀”，土地集中的程度却丝毫不比清代中、后期为弱。反过来讲，晚清的土地也并不比清初更集中。因此所谓的土地兼并，并不会影响社会结构的稳定，“真正侵蚀王朝肌体、造成王朝衰败的，其实正是凌驾于社会之上、充当社会调节力量的‘封建’帝王和地方各级官员”。 然而过去那种一切归咎于租佃制的“制度决定论”衰落后，完全不谈制度之弊的另一种时髦又取而代之。前述“人口论”与“气候灾变论”的争论就是如此。无论是规律性的人口周期，还是偶发的自然灾变，总之都已不把传统时代的制度问题当回事。其实如前所述，这两种解释用在欧洲还可以说是持之有故，用在中国这样明显的“人祸”就尤其不合理。 西方中世纪史的前述争论发生在中世纪制度早已终结、现代化早已完成的发达国家，争论只涉及人口剧减的机制，并不涉及其他方面，争论双方都无意于肯定中世纪制度，也无意于怀疑西方走出中世纪是否错误。但我们如果也去赶这时髦，情况就不一样了。过去我们说“传统”很糟糕，因此对这些浩劫有一套解释，但这种解释并不成功。现在我们不能改说“传统”很优秀了，就根本不解释，好像那些浩劫没有发生过，或者发生了也只怪“小冰河时期”。即便某次大乱可以如此解释，从陈胜吴广到太平天国的一次次“爆炸”，难道都能归因于“小冰河”？惟独中国历史上每隔约两百年就出现一次小冰河，而在其他国家则不曾有。这可能吗？ 我们不能回避这些事实，但也不能由此得出中国文化，乃至所谓中国人的“民族性”就很恶劣的结论。我宁可认为，而且的确也有充分的证据认为，那些问题并非作为民族标识的“中国文化”使然，更不是中华民族不可救药的“劣根性”的证明，而是那时的制度的确有某种问题。 那么，究竟是什么原因使中国在历史上社会危机不爆发则已，一爆发就那么惨烈呢？大家都读过《红楼梦》，《红楼梦》里说，大家都像乌眼鸡一样，恨不得你吃了我，我吃了你。到底中国人之间有什么深仇大恨，在社会危机中发生这么凶狠残酷的屠杀？我们要在人类文明中崛起，甚至希望从中国文化中发掘解决人类生存困境的资源，就不能不研究这个问题。 中国的历史有辉煌的篇章，但也的确有许多血腥的页码。近代以来中国长期国弱民穷，人们怨天尤人，难免怨及祖宗，“反传统”的确反得过分；乃至出现所谓“劣根性”之说，把中国的历史涂抹得一片漆黑。对此予以纠正是完全必要的。但是现在我们不能倒到另一极端：因为日子稍微好过了些，就小富即狂，把历史说得花团锦簇。 </section></section></section> </div></div>