俯瞰法治的发展:法制的起源

<p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">许多人知道(至少听说过)法治的重要性,但大多数人不知道为什么法治重要,更少人知道怎样才能实现法治。法治这个题目几乎贯穿人类文明的发展史(这后面会很清楚)。世界上第一个帝国就开始引进法律来治理(详细见下面)。大约四千年过去了,许多国家尝试过各种不同的路径经历过许多进展和挫折,到今天只有少数国家真正实现了法治。为什么实现法治这么难?这可以从多种不同角度来解释。只有从政治哲学或宗教的高度来看,才可能真正理解实现法治的特殊难度。认识实现法治的难度是第一步。第二步是勾画一个轮廓(英语里通常讲有一个</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">roadmap</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)。第三步是制定可行的战略计划。有了这样的计划再加上多方面的长期努力才有可能实现法治。否则只是空谈,作无用功,甚至南辕北辙。我准备写一系列讨论法治的文章,澄清一些与法治相关的课题,为将来的讨论作准备。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">首先需要搞清楚法制(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Rule by Law</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)与法治(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Rule of Law</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)的区别。许多人搞不清这两个词的不同,华人中间这种人比较多。一方面大陆华人中法盲多;另一方面中文两个词的发音相近。再者许多中文文章作者自己搞不清它们的区别。简单地说,<span style="color:#222222;background:white;">法制的意思是统治者以法律来治理国家,但是统治者本身却不受法律限制。法治意思是法律高于统治者,或者说统治者也必须遵守法律。更详细可以参考我以前的几篇文章及其引用的参考文献</span></span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;color:#222222;background:white;">[1-3]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#222222;background:white;">。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">二年多前与陶达士讨论时<span style="color:#222222;background:white;">我就考虑是不是写一系列关于法治的文章</span>(在我的华夏文集里还有少许续后讨论)</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[2]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">。那时福山刚访问过北京,王岐山(当时仍是中央常委)会见了福山并表示中国要搞法治。有些人得知后很激动。我当时略看了报道后就明确一点:王要搞的与真正的法治毫无关系。懂得法制和法治的区别就知道任何一个皇帝,国王,总统,或政党领导下的法治绝不可能是真正的法治。看了报道以后我颇有些不理解福山对王岐山的建议。那时我已经非常熟悉福山两部关于政治秩序的书</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[4-5]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">。他认为建立现代国家必须有三要素而法治是其中之一。他的这两部书花了很多篇幅讨论法治在各文明中的历史与发展。福山一针见血地指出中国从来没有建立过法治的关键:因为中国从来没有一个超越的宗教(将来我再详细介绍并分析这点)。既然如此福山为什么还建议中国考虑先建立法治而不是民主?我现在有个尝试的答案,这个系列结束以后我再给出这答案。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">那为什么我到现在才开始写法治的系列文章呢?一个原因是法治这个课题非常难。福山的两部书中花了至少三分之一的篇幅讨论法治,他也认为在现代国家三要素中法治是最难实现的,而且常常比另外两要素难得多。我推荐</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">Brian Z. Tamanaha</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; background:white;">写的</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">关于法治的起源和发展的教科书</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[6]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">。福山是从政治学角度探讨,而</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">Tamanaha</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">的书</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">是法学院用的法治历史课本。我个人觉得</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[6]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">写的很好且易读。另外还有已故著名世界法学史权威哈佛的</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">Harold J. Berman</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; background:white;">所写的两部专著</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">[7,8]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">。这些涉及政治学,法学,历史,哲学,宗教等等。要写的比较易懂学术上又比较准确</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">的文章<span style="background:white;">需要很多准备和努力。</span></span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; background:white;">另一个大难题是宗教。许多华人一听涉及宗教,就认为那是迷信。还有人认为宗教与理性矛盾。有人认为宗教就是要人遵守一些仪式。至少对犹太-基督教来说,这些都不正确。我推迟介绍法治是因为考虑到多数华人是否能够接受这系列文章的推理。从上面引用的福山对中国未能建立法治的分析可以看到,考虑法治的成功与否无法避免宗教这个题目。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">&nbsp;&#9678; </span><span style="font-family: &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">法律</span><span style="font-size:10.5pt; line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">的</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">起源:汉谟拉比法典(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">The Code of Hammurabi</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)</span>&nbsp;&#9678;</p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">以下根据</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[9-11]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">。五千多年前两河流域的苏美尔人(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Sumer</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)发明人类的最早文字,人类从此开始有了文字记录的历史。也是苏美尔人建立了世界上最早的城邦(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">city</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">-</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">state</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">),例如</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Lagash, Nippur, Ur, Uruk, Eridu</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">等。开始这些城邦是独立的,每个城邦由一个统治者治理。城邦的统治者同时也是这个城邦的神的最高祭司。苏美尔人所在地区的西北居住着说闪语的,比苏美尔人文明程度低一些的,阿卡德人(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Akkad </span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)。闪语即</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Semitic</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">语言,不同于苏美尔语言。犹太人和阿拉伯人都属于闪族语系。后来阿卡德人出了一位统治者萨尔贡(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Sargon, 2334&#8211;2284 BC</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)。萨尔贡征服了美索不达米亚的所有城邦,建立了世界上第一个帝国。阿卡德人在军事上征服了苏美尔人,强迫他们使用阿卡德语言,但是采用了苏美尔人的文化包括文艺,科学,和宗教。只靠武力征服的萨尔贡皇朝不稳固,给了后来的汉谟拉比(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Hammurabi, 1810 &#8211; 1750 BC</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)称霸的机会。从萨尔贡到汉谟拉比有许多历史细节可以参考(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[9]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">48-51</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页),这里略去。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">汉谟拉比不是苏美尔人也不是<span style="background:white;">阿卡德人而是野蛮民族</span></span><span style="font-size:10.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; background:white;">亚摩利人</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">Amorites</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">)的后代。</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">汉谟拉比通过结盟和武力征服用了三十八年统治了所有<span style="background:white;">美索不达米亚城邦。</span>汉谟拉比的帝国<span style="background:white;">是一个多种文化,多种族,多语言的帝国。</span>对许多他的帝国臣民来说汉谟拉比是外族人。汉谟拉比通过一系列政治,管理,社会,和宗教改革来巩固他征服的地区,使<span style="background:white;">美索不达米亚文明成为当时世界的最高文明。</span>为了统治这样的帝国,协调经济和农业,使臣民忠诚,使各地区都觉得与其它地区一样公平,汉谟拉比引进了一套法典,这法典后来以他的名字命名(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">The Code of Hammurabi</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">1754 BC</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;background:white;">)</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">。他还利用书写文字来建立一种统一的形式,规则,和标准。汉谟拉比法典是人类法制时代的开端。(早些时候出现过比较简单的法典,见</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[11]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">75-76</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页。但汉谟拉比法典远较这些完整。)汉谟拉比法典至少有</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">282</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">条款,分为各种类别:做假证,盗窃,借贷,伤害(赔偿和惩罚),婚姻,孩童等等(详细可参考</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[11]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">79</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页的表)。汉谟拉比时代也开始分开世俗法庭与宗教事务法庭。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">采用成文法律统治是一个进步。古代统治常以人的指令为准,例如中国的圣旨。问题是指令可能有变;中国有一句成语朝令夕改。指令传递也可能出现差别。全帝国一致的法律促进平等,使得不同地区和不同种族受到平等对待。</span></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">这里稍比较一下中国古代。大家知道秦朝也曾尝试过法制即商鞅变法。提醒注意几点。首先,商鞅变法比汉谟拉比法典晚大约</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">1500</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">年。第二,秦朝引入法律是为了国家强大,用以征服它国。汉谟拉比已经建立了帝国,引入法典时是为了使帝国有凝聚力,促进种族平等和地区平等。商鞅的法的特征是惩罚严厉。这些可能是中国常把商鞅变法作为负面例子而汉谟拉比法典常作为正面例子的原因。</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">&#9678; </span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">法治</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">&nbsp;&#9678;</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p style="border:none;"><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">法治与法制的最重要的区别是法治用法律约束统治者。人类早期社会是游牧部落。游牧部落一般来说人不多,最多几十人。部落中人与人之间相互认识,抽象的集权没有必要。人类定居以后建立了比较大的社会,同时早期的农耕社会例如<span style="background:white;">美索不达米亚和埃及需要水利工程,集权成为必须。集权常附带有负面问题</span>,<span style="background:white;">例如统治者滥用权力。</span>法治提供了限制权力的一种办法。</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">汉谟拉比法典不是法治。首先它的来源大概是皇帝过去的判决先例和以前的法典(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[11]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">76</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页)。这样的法律不可能约束统治者。但是通过成文法律例如汉谟拉比法典来统治仍然优越于通过圣旨来统治,因为统治者需要考虑法律的前后一致和对所有臣民一致。</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p style="border:none;"><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">哈耶克曾提出法治的法律应该具有的三条件:普遍性,平等性,确定性(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Generality, Equality, Certainty</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[6]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">66-72</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页)。这是现代法治的观念但是仍然可以用来考虑早期法制的优劣。以这为标准看,汉谟拉比法典仍然存在许多不平等(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[10]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">,</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">26</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页)。奴隶在汉谟拉比法典中没有任何权利,犯了琐碎的罪就会受很重的处罚。法律上存在两类人:贵族和其他人。也就是说法律上不平等。</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">&#9678; </span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">结论</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">&nbsp;&#9678;</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p style="border:none;"><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">我们以后会看到人类社会走向法治的路程很长也很曲折。这里提及一点:</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">[11]</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">的第五章讲到在西奈山上摩西首次给以色列引入拼音字母,一神教,和成文律法(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">82</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">页)。要解释清楚这点需要牵涉很多。这里先略去。</span></p> <p style="border:none;">&nbsp;</p> <p style="border:none;"><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">注释:</span></em></p><em> </em><p style="border:none;"><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">1</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)韩家亮:法治,法制,三权分立 </span><a href="http://my.cnd.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=28078"><span style="color:#1155CC">http://my.cnd.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=28078</span></a>.&nbsp;William McNeill, "The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community", University Of Chicago Press, 1992. </em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;">2a</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;">)<span style="color:#333333;background:white;">難忘的會談</span></span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">&#8212;&#8212;</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;color:#333333;background:white;">記王岐山與福山、青木的會見 </span><a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=43971"><span style="color:#1155CC;background:white;">http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=43971</span></a></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;color:#333333;background:white;">2b</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">)韩家亮:关于王岐山会见福山等人之我见 </span><a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=45140"><span style="color:#1155CC;background:white;">http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=45140</span></a></em> </p><em> </em><p style="border:none;"><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">2c</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)韩家亮:与陶达士商榷法治与中国 </span><a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=45283"><span style="color:#1155CC">http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=45283</span></a></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">3</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)韩家亮:秦朝商鞅搞的是法制不是法治 </span><a href="http://hx.cnd.org/?p=145920"><span style="color:#1155CC">http://hx.cnd.org/?p=145920</span></a></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">4</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Francis Fukuyama, "The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution,"Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011. </span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">5</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">Francis Fukuyama, "Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy," Farrar, Straus and Giroux,&nbsp;2014. </span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">6</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)</span><span style="color:#333333;background:white;">Brian Z. Tamanaha, &#8220;On the Rule of Law: History, Politics, Theory,&#8221;&nbsp;</span><span><a href="http://my.cnd.org/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=35036"><span style="color:purple;background:white;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none">Cambridge University Press</span></a><span style="color:#333333;background:white;">, 2004.&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">7</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;">)</span><span style="color:#333333;background:white;">Harold J. Berman, &#8220;Law and Revolution, The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition,&#8221; Harvard University Press, 1983.</span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;color:#333333;background:white;">8</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">)</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;color:#333333;background:white;">Harold J. Berman, &#8220;Law and Revolution, II: The Impact of the Protestant Reformations on the Western Legal Tradition,&#8221; Belknap Press, 2006.&nbsp;</span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">(</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;color:#333333;background:white;">9</span><span style="font-family:&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;;Arial Unicode MS&quot;; color:#333333;background:white;">)</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;,serif;Times New Roman&quot;">William McNeill, "The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community", University Of Chicago Press, 1992, pp.41-62.&nbsp;</span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%; font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">(</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">10</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt; line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">)</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">Lerner, Robert E. "Western civilizations : their history and their culture,"&nbsp;Vol.1, 13th Ed., Norton, 1998.&nbsp;Chapter 2. &nbsp;</span></em></p><em> </em><p><em><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%; font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">(</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">11</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt; line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">)</span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%;font-family:&quot;Gungsuh&quot;,serif;">Robert K. Logan, "The Alphabet Effect: The Impact of the Phonetic Alphabet on the Development of Western Civilization", St Martins Pr, 1987.&nbsp;Chapter 4.&nbsp;</span></em></p><em> </em><p style="border:none;"><em>&nbsp;</em></p> <!–[if gte mso 10]> <![endif]–>


Notice: Undefined offset: 0 in /home/chinai11/public_html/wp-content/plugins/custom-author/custom-author.php on line 91
发布于历史