<p><br /></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">最近美国最高法院法官的任命受到广泛关注。一方面这可以理解因为这与坚持法治相关。另一方面,许多人不懂什么是法治(西方这种人不少但华人更多)。法治是个大课题牵涉很深很广。本来我计划全面介绍政治哲学以后再深入讨论法治。但是最近美国大法官任命的争议使我稍作改变。我这里先给出几个要点供读者思考,以后再另文深入探讨。同时也欢迎各抒己见。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">1</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)需要搞清楚法制与法治的区别。<span style="color: #333333;background:white;">法制(</span></span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">Rule by Law)</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">指以法律而不是以指令来治国。法制最早创立于大约四千年前的美索不达尼亚(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">Ur-Nammu Code</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">,</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">Hammurabi Code</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">等)。法治(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">Rule of Law</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">)指所有人都必须在法律约束之下,特别是当权者。法治的起源有不同说法,一说始于古希腊柏拉图、亚里斯多德,一说始于公元</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">1070</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333;background:white;">年的教皇改革</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">[1]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333;background:white;">。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333;background:white;">2</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333;background:white;">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">实现法治非常不容易。福山两部关于世界各文明政治秩序的书指出一个现代国家必须具备三要素,其中之一是法治</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">[2,3]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">。他还指出这三要素中法治最难实现。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">3</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)我曾经研究过大量法治的文献。世界上所有文明中只有基督文明的一部分实现了法治(这里指自生法治;有一些国家,例如日本,台湾,南韩等成功移植了法治)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">[4-8]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">。个中原因非常复杂。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">4</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)<span style="color:#333333">要懂得法治,非常重要的是懂得法(</span></span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">Law</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">)与立法(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">Legistration</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">)之间的区别。在现代以前,法是固定不变的,由一个比任何立法者更高的权威预先确定。这个权威可能是神/上帝,远古的习俗,或者自然法。立法则由国王,总统,国会等制订。制定的法律必须符合已经存在的法。法与立法的区别对应于现代法律体系的宪法与一般法律(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">ordinary law)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">的区别。与其它文明比较,欧洲政治具有特殊性因为欧洲政权的权力和合法性与法治的健全一直有紧密的联系</span>[2,3]<span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">5</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)许多人误以为民主容易实现,只要一人一票投票选举就可以了。先贤们可不是这样认为。柏拉图、亚里斯多德等古希腊哲学家普遍认为民主容易导致多数暴政,而且民主的多数暴政比一般暴君更坏。美国国父们很少赞扬</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">/</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">提倡民主而多提共和,也是因为担忧多数暴政。相关论述分散于古希腊以来的许多文献中。有一本书对从古希腊到美国民主的叙述比较易懂可以参考(但我不同意他对英国脱欧,欧洲和美国的民粹主义的看法)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">[9]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">。美国民主之所以能够成功是因为权力分割限制民主。美国的权力分割主要是三权分立(还有其它,例如联邦和地方政府分权)。而法国革命开始时没有这种制衡,导致一段非常残酷血腥时期。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">6</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)三权分立就是行政(政府),立法(国会两院),法院各自独立。法院解释法律和判决案例。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">7</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)古希腊的雅典民主只存在一百年左右。雅典民主衰败有几个原因,法治不健全是一个因素。雅典的法(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">Law</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">)可以是从早期一位政治家索伦来。古希腊流行的是原始多神教,古希腊哲学家们不知道圣经和基督教。如果他们知道圣经,或许能够建立更好的法治。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">8</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)圣经的旧约前五本书是</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">Torah</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">,意思是法(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">LAW</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)。对圣经和基督教有基本了解的人都知道新约圣经与旧约圣经有很大不同。历史上欧洲建立法治的关键在于怎样使当时的法律与罗马法律和圣经一致。</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">H Berman</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">的两部关于欧洲法治产生和发展历史的书对此有详细叙述</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">[10,11]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">。另外福山的书以及一本法学院的教材对理解这过程也有帮助</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">[2,3,12]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">。具体非常负责。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">9</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)上面讲到法(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">Law</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)与立法(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">Legistration</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)之间的区别。为什么有这样的区别?原则上是因为</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">The Law </span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">是不可改变的。按照圣经,神的律法永不变。路加福音</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">16:17 </span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">(耶稣说)不过,就是天地都消失,律法的一点一划也不会失效</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333"> (Luke 16:17 It is easier for heaven and earth to disappear than for the least stroke of a pen to drop out of the Law. ) </span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">。 但现实世界的环境常有变化。至少从便于守法和执法的角度上,不时需要国会立新的法,即上面提及的</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">Legistration</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">。最近报道的脸书和其它</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">social media</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">是否侵犯客户的隐私就是一个例子。以前没有这方面的法律,至少很难应用以前的法律到新媒体上。所以有必要立新法。那法院起什么作用呢?由法院来确定立的法是不是与宪法以及先前的法一致。如果一致,新法就成立。如果不一致,新法就不成立需要打回去(这一程序在雅典就健全,</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">[12]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#333333">有很清楚的解释)。不服下级法院的判决的人可以上诉直至最高法院。最高法院的裁决是最后的。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">10</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)认真想一下就应该明白,在健全的法治下法院(特别是最高法院)的判决不应该受民意或民主选举的影响,否则就完全违背美国国父们对法治的设计原则。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">现在来看最近确立美国最高法院法官引起的争执。西方国家的政体基本都属于自由民主制,都从洛克的自由主义而来。自由主义的成功和发展分为几支派</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">[13]</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">。洛克本人属于坚定的加尔文主义者,不会同意把自由主义置于基督教之上。现在有一批左派把自己的信条置于圣经之上。右派也有极端化的问题,但现在主要问题在一些左派过于激进。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">美国最高法院法官的确立需要参议院的批准。前一段报道显示这次被提名的</span><span style="background:white;">Brett M. Kavanaugh</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">的考量受政治派别争执的很大影响。这非常不应该,实际上是无视法治的原则。这里先考虑几个争议问题。<span style="color:#222222;background:white;">仔细研读圣经会知道有些事明确可行,有些事明确不可行,有些事不清楚。</span>一争论的要点是</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#222222;background:white;">Roe v. Wade</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#222222;background:white;">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#222222;background:white;">1973</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#222222;background:white;">),与堕胎是否合法相关。这个问题我不是完全确定。我可以理解反对堕胎的观点。因为每一生命归根结底都是来自神。但是圣经中确实没有讲明堕胎是否合法;特别是在特殊情况下(如果有人不同意,愿闻其详)。所以我不完全反对堕胎但认为应该慎重而行。最近一件明显违背圣经的案例涉及同性恋婚姻。同性恋婚姻明摆着亵渎圣经。圣经里多次把祂与祂的子民的关系比喻成丈夫与妻子的关系。如果同性婚姻合法,那是不是圣经都需要重新翻译重新解释?我并不赞成歧视同性恋者,法律上可以给这样的结合(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#222222;background:white;">civic union</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:#222222;background:white;">?)与婚姻一样的社会待遇,例如社会保险,继承权等。但不应该有婚姻的名义。</span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:white;">左派对</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:white;">Kavanaugh</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:white;">的刁难很明显,先前对他问的问题完全属于党派左右之争。从上面讨论来看,他们强调的方面不符合法治的基本原则。至于现在炒作的</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:white;">Kavanaugh</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:white;">中学是否有过侵扰女性的事,现在指控的事情迄今为止尚缺乏证据。即使曾有过这事,难道世上有完人?如果有,那圣经不是证明错了?如果要选一个完人做法官,世上不可能有一个人合格。关键是要看这人对法律的理解和过去经历。截至目前为止的报道来看,</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:white;">Kavanaugh</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:white;">比绝大多数人更合格。一些民主党人的策略很明显:拖延时间。如果民主党中期选举获胜则可以选一位政治倾向较左的人。这种想法实际违反法治的精神。根据今天的新闻报道,更有一些激进的民众去国会抗议扰乱国会的正常工作。这明显违反法治精神,应该极力避免。如有不同意见应该说理而不是施压。如果左派领袖还有一些法治观念的话,应该呼吁这些抗议的人马上离开国会。</span></p> <p><em> </em></p> <p><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0"><em>注释:</em></span></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">1</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">韩家亮:秦朝商鞅搞的是法制不是法治 </span><u><span style="color:#1155CC"><a href="http://hx.cnd.org/?p=145920"><span style="color:#1155CC">http://hx.cnd.org/?p=145920</span></a></span></u></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">2</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS""> Francis Fukuyama, "The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution,"Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011. </span></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">3</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">Francis Fukuyama, "Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy," Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014. </span><a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=191711"></a></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:purple;background:#E3E4E0">4</span><span style="font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";color:purple;background:#E3E4E0">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:#E3E4E0">韩家亮</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:#E3E4E0">: </span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";background:#E3E4E0">俯瞰法治的发展:法制的起源</span><u><span style="color:purple;background:#E3E4E0"><a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=191711"><span style="color:purple">http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=191711</span></a></span></u></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">5</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">)韩家亮</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">: </span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">俯瞰法治的发展:雅典</span></em></p> <p><a href="http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=191855"><span style="color:purple;background:#E3E4E0"><em>http://www.chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=191855</em></span></a></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">6</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">)韩家亮:俯瞰法治的发展:复兴 </span><a href="http://chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=194037"><span style="color:purple;background:#E3E4E0">http://chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=194037</span></a></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">7</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">)韩家亮</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">: </span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">俯瞰法治的发展:宗教(一)</span><u><span style="color:#1155CC; background:#E3E4E0"><a href="http://chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=194132"><span style="color:#1155CC">http://chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=194132</span></a></span></u></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">8</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; background:#E3E4E0">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">韩家亮:<span style="color:#333333">俯瞰法治的发展:西方与伊斯兰 </span></span><u><span style="color:#1155CC"><a href="http://chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=194331"><span style="color:#1155CC">http://chinainperspective.com/ArtShow.aspx?AID=194331</span></a></span></u></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">9</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS""> A. C. Grayling, Democracy and Its Crisis, </span> <span style="color:#333333; background:white;">Oneworld Publications, 2017. </span></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">10</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)</span><span>Harold J. Berman, "Law and Revolution, The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition," Harvard University Press, 1983. </span></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">11</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS""> Harold J. Berman, "Law and Revolution, II: The Impact of the Protestant Reformations on the Western Legal Tradition," Belknap Press, 2006. </span></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">12</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"">)</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS""> Brian Z. Tamanaha, "On the Rule of Law: History, Politics, Theory," Cambridge University Press, 2004. </span></em></p> <p><em><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">(</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">13</span><span style="font-family:"Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS";Arial Unicode MS"; color:#333333">)</span><span>Andrew Heywood, "Political Ideologies: An Introduction," Palgrave; 6th ed. 2017 edition </span></em></p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p>